1. When Napoleon invaded Portugal, the King of Portugal, Tom Jovo, fled to his colony, Brazil.
2. But later, his power was challenged in Portugal.
3. So he decided to go to Portugal leaving the colony of Brazil in the hands of his son DomPedro.
4. In 1822, Brazil obtained independence from Portugal.
5. It became the only constitutional monarchy in SouthAmerica.

1. First World War compelled soldiers to burrow into the soil to obtain shelter and survival.
2. The Trench system is the two to four trenches that go parallel to each other.
3. The trenches were dug in a zigzag manner.
4. So that no enemy, could fire for more than a few yards down Its length.

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
1. Despite the friendship of the United States, Western European countries It insecure.
2. Communist victory in Czechoslovakia added to their fears.
3. The Western European countries were now willing to consider a collective security solution.
4. The representatives of Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg met in Brussels and signed a treaty in March 1948 which provided for military, political, economic and cultural collaboration.
5. After some time USA, Italy, Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Ireland and Portugal joined the five Brussels Treaty Powers resulting in the formation of NATO. Under NATO, all the member states agreed to regard an attack on any one of them as an attack on all of them and placed their defence forces under a joint NATO Command Organisation.

(i) The most negative result of the Commercial Revolution was the revival of slavery. Slavery had virtually disappeared from European society by the end of the first millennium.
(ii) But the development of mining and plantation farming in the Spanish, Portuguese and English colonies led to the recruitment of slaves as unskilled labourers.
(iii) The attempt to enslave native Americans ended in failure, as they proved too tough to manage. The problem was solved by importing Africans.
(iv) This transatlantic slave trade that exported more than 11 million Africans to the Americas is a sordid story that is a shame on the making of the modem world.

1. Banning night work in bakeries.
2. If the factories or industries were shut down by the owners, it was opened by the workers.
3. Providing pensions for widows and free education for every child.
4. Stopping the collection of debts incurred during the siege.

1. The Boxers came from peasants, particularly from Shandong province.
2. The original aim of the Boxers was the destruction of the Manchu dynasty.
3. And also destruction of the Westerners who enjoyed a privileged position in China.
4. The Boxers burned churches and foreign residences.

pro-changers
1) After suspension of Non-cooperation, Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru proposed a new line of activity.
2) They wanted to return to active politics which included entry into electoral politics and demonstrate that the nationalists were capable of obstructing the working of the reformed legislature by capturing them and arousing nationalist spirit.
3) This group came to be called the 'Swarajists and pro-changers'. In Tamil Nadu, Satyamurti joined this group.
4) The pro-changers launched the Swarajya party as a part of the Congress.
no changers
1) There was another group which opposed council entry and wanted to continue the Gandhian line by mobilizing the masses.
2) This team led by Rajagopalachari, Vallabhai Patel and Rajendra Prasad was called 'No changers'.
3)  They argued that electoral politics would divert the attention of nationalists and pull them away from the work of mass mobilization and their issues.
4) They favoured the continuation of the Gandhian constructive programme of spinning, temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability and mobilise rural masses and prepare them for new mass movements.

1)  The twin objectives of the Home Rule League were the establishment of Home Rule for India in British Empire and arousing in the Indian masses a sense of pride for the Motherland.
2) It refers to a self-government granted by a central or regional government to its dependent political units on condition that their people should remain politically loyal to it.
3) This was a common feature in the ancient Roman Empire and the modem British Empire.
4) In Ireland the Home Rule Movement gathered force in the 1880s and a system of Home Rule was established by the Government of Ireland Act (1920) in six counties of Northern Ireland and later by the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) in the remaining 26 counties in the south.

1) The samitis were engaged in a range of activities such as physical and moral training of members, philanthropic work during the famines, epidemics, propagation of Swadeshi message during festivals, and organization of indigenous arbitration courts, and schools.
2) By its very nature boycott was passive action and its aim was to refuse to cooperate with the British administration.

1) The introduction of plantation crops such as coffee, tea and sugar in Empire colonies such as Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Mauritius, Fiji, Malaya, the Caribbean islands, and South Africa required enormous labour.
2) The abolition of slavery in British India in 1843 also facilitated the processes of emigration to Empire colonies. In 1837 the number of immigrant Tamil labourers employed in Ceylon coffee estate was estimated at 10,000.
3) The industry developed rapidly and so did the demand for Tamil labour.
4) In 1846 its presence was estimated at 80,000 and in 1855 at 128,000 persons. In 1877, the famine year, there were nearly 380,000 Tamil labourers in Ceylon.

1) The first major steel industry - Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) - was set up by the Tatas in 1907 as a part of swadeshi effort in Sakchi, Bihar.
2) Prior to this, a group of Europeans had attempted in 1875 to found the Bengal iron Company.
3) Following this, the Bengal Iron and Steel Company was set up in 1889. However, TISCO made a huge headway than the other endeavourers in this sector.
4) Its production increased from 31,000 tons in 1912-13 to 1,81,000 tons in 1917-18.

The setting up of public sector enterprises in heavy industry was again dictated by two considerations.
1) First, at the ideological level, the government was committed to a socialistic pattern of development which involved a high degree of state control over the economy.
2) But at a more practical level, the government had to take over the responsibility for the establishment of heavy industrial units which required a very high level of investment.

This process and the commitment of the leaders of independent India to the concerns of the people of Kashmir led the Constituent Assembly to provide for autonomous status to the State of Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Constitution.

Lord Wavell found a council without Muslim League representation as unworkable and thus abandoned the Simla talks.

The League supported the partition of Bengal, demanded separate electorates for Muslims, and pressed for safeguards for Muslims in Government Service.