A - Nitromethane - CH₃NO₂.
B - Chloropicrin - CCl₃ - NO₂.

Esters containing at least one ∝- hydrogen atom undergo self condensation in the presence of a strong base such as sodium ethoxide to form β-keto ester.

(i) for the dehydration of hides.
(ii) as a coagulating agent for rubber latex
(iii) in medicine for treatment of gout
(iv) as an antiseptic in the preservation of fruit juice.

 Tertiary butyl alcohol does not give iodoform reaction. All other compounds contains α H atoms and they undergo iodoform reaction.

Formula	IUPAC Name
(a) C2H5OCH3	Methoxy ethane
(b) C6H5OC2H5	Ethoxy benzene

(i) Propane-1, 2-diol
(ii) Ethane-1,2 - diol
(iii) 2-Hydroxy propanoic acid

(i) \(\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{w}}=\left[\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]=1 \times 10^{-14}\left(25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)\)
(ii) Ionic product of water is defined as the product of the concentration of hydronium and hydroxide ions of pure water. Its value at 25^oC is \(1 \times 10^{-14} \mathrm{~mol}^{2} \mathrm{dm}^{-2}\)

Number of X type atoms in the unit cell \(=8 \times \frac{1}{8}=1\)
Number of Y type atoms in the unit cell \(=1 \times \frac{1}{1}=1\)
Hence the formula is XY (or) X₁Y₁

(i) Fluorine is more electro negative than other halogens.
(ii) Because except fluorine all the other halogens have positive oxidation state.
(iii) It has high electron affinity character
Example:
\(\mathrm{Cl}_{2}\mathrm{O} \Rightarrow+1 \text { oxidation state }(\mathrm{Cl}) \)
\(\mathrm{OF}_{2} \Rightarrow-1 \text { oxidation state }(\mathrm{F})\)

In p-block elements, the first member of each group differs from the other elements of the corresponding group. The following factors are responsible for this anomalous behaviour
(i) Small size of the first member.
(ii) High ionisation enthalpy and high electronegativity.
(iii) Absence of d-orbitals in their valance shell.

+ 2H₂O

1. \(\kappa=\mathrm{C}\left(\frac{1}{\mathrm{~A}}\right)\)
2. \(\operatorname{let} \frac{l}{A}=x\)
i) \(0.01 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}: \kappa=0.01 x=10^{-2} x\)
ii) \(0.005 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}: \kappa=0.005 x=5 \times 10^{-3} x\)
iii) \(0.1 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl} \quad: \kappa=0.1 x=10^{-1} x\)
iv) \(0.25 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}: \kappa=0.25 x=2.5 \times 10^{-1} x\)
v) \(0.5 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}: \mathrm{K}=0.5 x=5 \times 10^{-1} x\)
\(\therefore 5 \times 10^{-1} x>2.5 \times 10^{-1} x>10^{-1} x>10^{-2} x>5 \times 10^{-3} x\)
\((ie) 0.5 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}>0.25 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}>0.1 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}>0.01 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}>0.005 \mathrm{M} \mathrm{KCl}\)

(i) At higher temperature, the reaction between copper and sulphur becomes feasible.
(ii) So they combine together and copper exists as copper sulphides in nature.
(iii) Besides this due to high polarising power of copper and silver ions, their sulphides are more stable.

Average rate of reaction:
The average rate is defined as the ratio of change in the final concentration of reactants and the initial concentration of reactants over the entire time period of reaction.
Average rate=\(\frac{-[Final \space concentration \space of \space reactants - Initial \space concentration \space of \space reactants}{(Change \space in \space time)}\)
R \(=\frac{-\left(\left[A_{2}\right]-\left[A_{1}\right]\right)}{\left(t_{2}-t_{1}\right)}=-\left(\frac{\Delta[A]}{\Delta t}\right)\)
[A]₁ = Concentration of reactant A₁ at time t₁
[A]₂ = Concentration of reactant A₂ at time t₂
Instantaneous rate of reaction:
The rate of reaction at any particular instant during the course of reaction is called as instantaneous rate.
Instantaneous rate \(=(\text { Average rate })_{\Delta t \rightarrow 0}\)
Rate of the reaction \(=\left(\frac{-\Delta \mathrm{A}}{\Delta \mathrm{t}}\right)\)

Copper exhibits +1 oxidation state most frequently Cu (29) - electronic configuration 3d¹⁰4s¹ copper ready to lose outer most one electron to attain the stable full filled electronic configuration. Hence it exhibits +1 oxidisation state.

Zirconium is a 4d element and Hafnium is a 5d element. There is an unexpected observation in the atomic radius of 5d elements which have nearly the same atomic radius as that of corresponding 4d elements. This is due to lanthanoid contraction. Hence they exhibit similar properties.

(i) An organic compound (A) is identified as C₆H₅CHO benzaldehyde. Benzaldehyde reduces Tollen'sreagent and also undergoes. Cannizaro reaction.
\(\underset { (A) }{ C_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CHO } +{ Ag }_{ 2 }O\longrightarrow 2Ag+\underset { (B) }{ { C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }COOH } \) 
(ii) Benzaldehyde reacts with acetic anhydride in the presence of sodium acetate gives cinnamic acid and it is (B) an unsaturated acid
\(\underset { (A) }{ { C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CHO } +\left( { CH }_{ 3 }CO \right) _{ 2 }O\overset { { CH }_{ 3 }COONa }{ \longrightarrow } \underset { (B) }{ { C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CH } { =CHCOOH }+{ CH }_{ 3 }COOH\) 
(iii) Compound A reacts with acetone to form compound (C) benzal acetone.
\(\underset {(A)}{{ C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CHO}+{ CH }_{ 3 }COC{ H }_{ 3 }\overset { NaOH }{ \longrightarrow } { C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CH=\underset { (C) }{ CH } -CO{ CH }_{ 3 }\) 

Compound	Compound Name	Formula
A	Benzaldehyde	C6H5CHO
B	Cinnamic acid	C6H5CH = CHCOOH
C	Benzal acetone	C6H5CH - CH-COCH3

Importance of proteins:
Proteins are the functional units of living things : play vital role in all biological processes
(i) All biochemical reactions occur in the living systems are catalysed by the catalytic proteins called enzymes.
(ii) Proteins such as keratin, collagen acts as structural back bones.
(iii) Proteins are used for transporting molecules (Haemoglobin), organelles (Kinesins) in the cell and control the movement of molecules in and out of the cells (Transporters).
(iv) Antibodies help the body to fight various diseases
(v) Proteins are used as messengers to coordinate many functions. Insulin & glucagon controls the glucose level in the blood.
(vi) Proteins act as receptors that detect presence of certain signal molecules and activate the proper response.
(vii) Proteins are also used to store metals such as iron (Ferritin) etc.

(i) The biochemical processes such as metabolism, cell-signaling etc... are essential for the normal functioning of our body.
(ii) These routine processes may be disturbed by any external factors such as microorganism, chemicals etc ..
(iii) Under such conditions medicines restore the normal functioning of the body.
(iv) These drug molecules interact with biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, etc .. that are responsible for different functions of the body.
(v) The drug interacts with these molecules and modify the normal biochemical reactions either by modifying the enzyme activity or by stimulating/suppressing certain receptors.

S. No.	Nitromethane	Nitrobenzene
i.	It is colourless	It is yellow coloured.
ii.	It is soluble in water	Insoluble in water.
iii.	Has pleasant smell	Has smell of bitter almonds.
iv.	Exhibits tautomerism	Doesnot exhibit tautomerism
v.	Used as good solvent	Used to prepare explosives Eg. TNT
vi.	Undergoes reduction in acidic and neutral medium.	Undergoes reduction in acidic, basic and neutral medium

(i) When ethylamines is treated with chloroform and an alkali, carbylamine reaction takes place and a foul smelling substance called carbylamlne (or) alkyl isocyanide is formed.
C₂H₅NH₂ + CHCl₃ + 3NaOH ➝ \(\underset { Ethyl \ isocyanide }{ { C }_{ 2 }{ H }_{ 5 }NC+3NaCl+3{ H }_{ 2 }O } \)
(ii) When ethylamine is warmed with CS₂ and mercuric chloride, alkyl isothiocyanate having a pungent mustard like odour is obtained. This reaction is called mustard oil reaction.
C₂H₂NH₂ + S = C-S \(\underrightarrow { Hg{ Cl }_{ 2 } } \) C₂H₅ - N = C = S + H₂S
(iii) When ethylamine condense with aromatic aldehyde (benzaldehyde) Schiff's base is formed.
C₆H₅CHO + H₂NC₂H₅ ➝ \(\underset { Schiffi's \ base \ Benzal-ethylamine }{ { C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CH=N{ C }_{ 2 }{ H }_{ 5 }+{ H }_{ 2 }O } \)

(i) Enzymes are complex protein molecules with three dimensional structures. They catalyse the chemical reaction in living organism. They are often present in colloidal state and extremely specific in catalytic action. Each enzyme produced in a particular living cell can catalyse a particular reaction in the cell.
Some common examples for enzyme catalysis:
(ii) The peptide glycyl L-glutamyl L-tyrosin is hydrolysed by an enzyme called pepsin.
(iii) The enzyme diastase hydrolyses starch into maltose
\(2\left(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{10} \mathrm{O}_{5}\right)_{\mathrm{n}}+\mathrm{nH}_{2} \mathrm{O} \rightarrow \mathrm{nC}_{12} \mathrm{H}_{22} \mathrm{O}_{11}\)
(iv) The yeast contains the enzyme zymase which converts glucose into ethanol.
\(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_{6} \rightarrow 2 \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}+2 \mathrm{CO}_{2}\)
(v) The enzyme micoderma aceti oxidises alcohol into acetic acid.
\(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}+\mathrm{O}_{2} \rightarrow \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{COOH}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}\)
(vi) The enzyme urease present in soya beens hydrolyses the urea.
\(\mathrm{NH}_{2}-\mathrm{CO}-\mathrm{NH}_{2}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \rightarrow 2 \mathrm{NH}_{3}+\mathrm{CO}_{2}\)
Mechanism of enzyme catalysed reaction
(vii) The following mechanism is proposed for the enzyme catalysis
\(​​​​​​​\mathrm{E}+\mathrm{S} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{ES} \rightarrow \mathrm{P}+\mathrm{E}\).
(viii) Where E is the enzyme, S the substrate (reactant), ES represents activated complex and P the products.

 

i) In increasing order of solubility in water:
\(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2},\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH}, \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}  \)
\(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}>\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}>\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH}\)
ii) In increasing order of basic strength:
a. Aniline, p - toluidine and p - nitro aniline
p - toluidine > aniline >p - nitro aniline

 b.  \(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}, \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NHCH}_{3}, \mathrm{p}-\mathrm{Cl}-\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{4}-\mathrm{NH}_{2} \)
\(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NHCH}_{3}>\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}>\mathrm{p}-\mathrm{Cl}-\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{4}-\mathrm{NH}_{2}\\ 2^{o} \text { amine } \quad \quad \quad \quad   e^{\ominus} \text { with drawing (group) }\)
(iii) In decreasing order of basic strength in gas phase:
\(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2},\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right) \mathrm{NH},\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{3} \mathrm{~N} \text { and } \mathrm{NH}_{3}  \)
\(\mathrm{NH}_{3}<\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}<\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{2} \mathrm{~N}<\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{3} \mathrm{NH}\\ \quad \quad \quad 1^{0} \text { amine } \quad 2^{0} \text { amine } \quad \quad \quad 3^{0} \text { amine }\)
(iv) In increasing order of boiling point:
\(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH},\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH}, \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2} \)
\(\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH}>\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}>\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH} \\ 2^{0} \text { amine } \quad \quad1^{0} \text { amine }\)
Generally amines have lower boiling point than alcohol. Due to comparable molecular mass and weaker H-bonds in Amines.
(v) In decreasing order of the pK_b values:
\( \mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}, \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NHCH}_{3},\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH} \text { and } \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{2} \)
\(\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH}<\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}<\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{2}<\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NHCH}_{3} \)
\(\quad \quad \quad 2^{0} \text { amine } \quad 1^{0} \text { amine } 1^{0} \text { amine } \quad 2^{0} \text { amine } \)
\(\mathrm{PK}_{b}: \quad 3.00\quad < \quad 3.29 \quad < \quad 3.38 \quad<\quad 9.30\)
pK_b ,Due to + 1 effect of C₂H₅ group. Higher the value of pK_b lower is the basicity
(vi) Increasing Order of basic strength:
\(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}, \mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{~N}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{2},\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH} \text { and } \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{2} \)
\(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{NH}_{2}>\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{~N}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{2}>\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{2}>\left(\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH} \\ \left(\mathrm{pK}_{6}: 9.38 \quad > \quad \quad 8.92 \quad \quad > \quad 3.38 \quad > \quad \quad 3.00\right)\)
Due to + 1 effect of C₂H₅ group.
In decreasing order of basic strength:

i) Molar conductivity
Given : C = 0.01 M;
\(\kappa=1.5 \times 10^{-4} \mathrm{~S} \mathrm{~cm}^{-1} \)
\(=1.5 \times 10^{-2} \mathrm{~S} \mathrm{~m}^{-1} \)
\(\lambda_{\text {cation }}^{0}=248.2 \mathrm{~S} \mathrm{~cm}^{2} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1} \)
\(\lambda_{\text {anion }}^{0}=51.8 \mathrm{~S} \mathrm{~cm}^{2} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1} \)
\(\Lambda_{m}^{0}=\frac{\kappa \times 10^{-3}}{C} \mathrm{~S} \mathrm{~m}^{2} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1} \)
\(=\frac{1.5 \times 10^{-2} \times 10^{-3}}{0.01} \)
\(=1.5 \times 10^{-3} \mathrm{~S} \mathrm{~m}^{2} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\)
ii) \(\alpha=\frac{\Lambda_{m}}{\Lambda_{m}^{0}}\)
\(\Lambda_{\mathrm{m}}^{0}=\lambda_{\text {cation }}^{0}+\lambda_{\text {anion }}^{0} \)
\(=(248.2+51.8) \mathrm{S} \mathrm{cm}^{2} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1} \)
\(=300 \mathrm{~S} \mathrm{~cm}^{2} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}\)
\(=300 \times 10^{-4} \mathrm{Sm}^{2} \mathrm{~mol}^{-1}  \)
\(\alpha =\frac{1.5 \times 10^{-3}}{300 \times 10^{-4}}=0.05\)
iii) \(\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{a}} =\frac{\alpha^{2} \mathrm{C}}{1-\alpha} \)
\(\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{a}} =\frac{(0.05)^{2} \times(0.01)}{1-0.05}=2.6 \times 10^{-5} \)
(or) 
\(\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{a}} =\alpha^{2} \mathrm{C}  \)
\(=(0.05)^{2} \times(0.01)  \)
\(\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{a}} =2.5 \times 10^{-5}\)

Narcotic drugs: [Opioids]
(i) These are narcotic analgesics. These relieve pain and produce sleep. These drugs are addictive. In poisonous dose, these produces coma and ultimately death.
(ii) They are used for either short-term or long term relief of severe pains. They are mainly used for post operative pain, pain of terminal cancer.
(iii) Eg: Morphine, Codeine
Non-narcotic drugs:
(i) These are non- narcotic analgesics. These reduce the pain without causing impairment of consciousness.
(ii) They alleviate pain by reducing local inflammatory responses.
(iii) These are used for short-term pain relief and for modest pain like headache, muscle strain, bruising or arthritis.
(iv) These drugs have many other effects such as reducing fever (antipyretic) and preventing platelet coagulation (eg. aspirin).
(v) These reduce fever by causing the hypothalamus to over ride a prostaglandin - induced increase in temperature.
(vi) Eg. Aspirin, Paracetamol, Ibuprofen. There are two types in it.
a) Anti inflammatory: eg: Aspirin, Paracetamol
b) Non steroidal anti -inflammatory drugs: (NSAIDs) eg: Ibuprofen

(i) To understand how a soap works as a cleansing agent, let us consider sodium palmitate an example of a soap. The cleansing action of soap is directly related to the structure of carboxylate ions (palmitate ion) present in soap. The structure of palmitate exhibit dual polarity. The hydrocarbon portion is non polar and the carboxyl portion is polar.

(ii) The nonpolar portion is hydrophobic while the polar end is hydrophilic. The hydrophobic hydro carbon portion is soluble in oils and greases, but not in water. The hydrophilic carboxylate group is soluble in water.
(iii) The dirt in the cloth is due to the presence of dust particles intact or grease which stick. When the soap is added to an oily or greasy part of the cloth, the hydrocarbon part of the soap dissolve in the grease, leaving the negatively charged carboxylate end exposed on the grease surface.
(iv) At the same time the negatively charged carboxylate groups are strongly attracted by water, thus leading to the formation of small droplets called micelles and grease is floated away from the solid object. When the water is rinsed away, the grease goes with it. As a result, the cloth gets free from dirt and the droplets are washed away with water. The micelles do not combine into large drops because their surfaces are all negatively charged and repel each other. The cleansing ability of a soap depends upon its tendency to act as a emulsifying agent between water and water insoluble greases.

The cleansing action of detergents are similar to cleansing action of soap. Eg: the structure of a cationic detergents is: