(i) The books composed after the Rigveda are called Later Vedic books
(ii) The Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda are the Later Vedic books.
(iii) These books were composed by the priests.
(iv) These books contained rules about the society.

(i) More than 23,00 years ago, a ruler named Alexander who lived in Macedonia in Europe wanted to become a world conqueror.
(ii) Though he couldn't conquer the world, he conquered parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to Indian sub-continent, reaching upto the banks of the Beas.
(iii) But when he tried to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused, as they were scared of the rulers of India who had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants.

(i) The archaeologists found out that people lived in huts.
(ii) The people kept cattle as well as other animals.
(iii) The people also grew a variety of crops - rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard.

(i) Rajas of Sangha performed rituals.
(ii) They met in assemblies and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate.

Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins

(i) Use of iron ploughshares was introduced so that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better and more grain could be produced.
(ii) Transplanting paddy, led to increased production, as many more plants survived.

(i) The priests divided people into four groups, called varnas. According to them, each varna had a different set of functions.
(ii) The priests also said that these groups were decided on the basis of birth. Many people did not accept the system of varna laid down by the brahmins.
(iii) Some people felt that there should be no differences amongst people based on occupation.
(iv) Some felt that everybody had the right to perform rituals. Many opposed the concept of untouchability. In this way, people opposed the system of varna.

The kings of these times encouraged these changes i.e. use of iron ploughshare and transplantation of paddy. It was because these two activities would led to the increased agricultural production.
As a result of this, kings would be able to get more tax from their men. In this way, they could be able to maintain large army that would be utilised in acquiring more lands for agriculture.

(i) The rajas of mahajanapadas built forts to protect their capital city.
(ii) Huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around the cities.
(iii) Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed protection.
(iv) Some rulers wanted to show their wealth and strength by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities.
(v) Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king.

Shudras, women and dasas could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas.

The Vajji sangha was different from the other mahajanapadas in these ways:

The characteristics of the earthen pots are:
(i) In janapadas, people made earthen pots, some of these were grey in colour and others were red.
(ii) One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware, and such pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns.

The capital city of mahajanapadas was fortified because:
(i) Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified which means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Some rulers wanted to show their wealth and strength by building huge impressive walls.
(ii) Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and they needed protection. The king could easily control the land and people inside the fortified area.

The most powerful rulers of Magadha were:
(i) Bimbisara and Ajatasattu were two very powerful rulers who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas.
(ii) Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control upto the North-West part of the sub-continent.