The reasons behind the movement moving of hunters-gatherers are:
(i) If they stayed at one place for a long time, they would have eaten up all the available plant and animal resources. Therefore, they had to move elsewhere in search of food.
(ii) Animals move from place to place - either in search of smaller prey or in the case of deer and wild cattle, in search of grass and leaves. That is why, those who hunted them had to follow their movements.
(iii) Plants and trees bear fruit in different seasons. So, people may have moved from season to season in search of different kinds of plants.
(iv) People, plants and animals need water to survive. People living on river banks had to go in search of water during the dry seasons as some rivers are seasonal while others are perennial (with water throughout the year).

(i) The members of a tribe follow occupations such as hunting, gathering, farming, herding and fishing.
(ii) Women do most of the agricultural work like preparing the ground, sowing seeds, looking after the growing plants and harvesting grain.
(iii) Children often look after plants, driving away animals and birds that might eat them. The cleaning of animals and milking, is done by both men and women.
(iv) Both women and men make pots, baskets, tools and huts. They also take part in singing, dancing and decorating their huts.

(i) The best known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We known about him from a prashasti. This prashasti (inscription) was composed by Pulakeshin II's court poet Ravikirti. This tells us about his ancestors, who are traced back through four generations from father to son.
(ii) Pulakeshin II evidently got the Kingdom from his uncle. According to Ravikirti
(a) He led expeditions along both the West and the East coast.
(b) Pulakeshin II checked the advance of Harsha. Harsha means happiness.
(c) Pulakeshin II also attacked the Pallava king, who took shelter behind the walls of Kanchipuram. However the successors of Pulakeshin II were not very capable and therefore the Chalukyas victory was short-lived.

The main achievements of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas were:
(i) The Pallavas and Chalukyas were that most important ruling dynasties in South India. The kingdom of the Pallavas spread from the region around their capital, Kanchipuram to the Kaveri delta, while that of the Chalukyas was centred around the Raichur Doab, between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.
(ii) The Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently attacked one another's areas, particularly they attacked the capital cities, which were prosperous towns.
(iii) Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas, was an important trading and commercial centre. Initially this town developed as a religious centre, with a number of temple.
(iv) During the days of Pulakeshin II, the Chalukyas defeated Harshavardhana. But this victory was short-lived.
(v)Ultimately, both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas gave way to new rulers belonging to Rashtrakuta and Chola dynasties.

The starting of the Bhakti became Central feature of later Hinduism. It was the time when certain deities were worshipped such as Shiva, Vishnu and Goddesses as Durga. Bhakti refers to a persons's devotion to his or her chosen deity. Anybody could follow the path of Bhakti, be it rich or poor, people belonging to 'high' or 'low' caste, man or woman. The concept of Bhakti is also present in sacred book of the Hindus i.e. 'Bhagavad Gita', included in the Mahabharata. This type of worship spread to various parts of the country. The people who followed Bhakti focused on devotion and individual worship of a God or Goddess and not on the performance of elaborate sacrifices.

Each pilgrim left experiences of their journies
• They wrote about the dangers they faced and experiences during their travels to the
 countries and the monasteries.
• They wrote about the books they carried back with them
• Xuan Zang went back China through the land route. He carried statues of Buddha made of
gold, silver and sandalwood
• He also took about 600 manuscripts loaded on about 20 horses He spent his life converting the manuscripts from Sanskrit to Chinese.
• Fa Xian also took many manuscripts with him He also gave us detailed description of his journey and contemporary Indian society.

We find out about early cities of the sub-continent through the following sources:
(i) Stories The Jatakas were stories that were probably composed by ordinary people and then written down and preserved by Buddhist monks. The Jatakas throw sufficient light on the lives of the people who used to live there.
(ii) Accounts of travellers and sailors Another way of finding out about early cities is from the accounts of sailors and travellers who visited them.
(iii) Sculptures We can use other kinds of evidences to find out about life in some of these early cities. Sculptors carved scenes depicting peoples lives in towns and villages, as well as in the forest.
(iv) Archaeological findings In many early cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other. They have also found many silver and copper coins. From all these findings, many important facts about the early cities can be known.

(i) Arikamedu is located in Pondicherry. Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, this site was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands.
(ii) A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, was found at the site.
(iii) Other finds of Arikamedu included pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae, stamped red-glazed pottery, local made pottery which used Roman designs.
(iv) Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site.
(vi) Small tanks have been found that were probably used to dye cloth.
(vii) There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass.

In some cities, special buildings were constructed on the citadel. In Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built. This was lined with bricks, coated with plaster and made water-tight with a layer of natural tar. 
There were steps leading down to it from two sides, while there were rooms on all sides. Water was probably brought in from a well and drained out after use. Perhaps important people took a dip in this tank on special occasions.

Megasthenes described the emperor's appearance in public as:
• The occasions on which the emperor appeared in public were celebrated with grand royal processions.
• He was carried in a golden palanquin. His guards rode elephants decorated with gold and silver.
• Some of the guards carried trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king was normally surrounded by armed women.
• He was afraid that someone might try to kill him.

(i) This story is from the famous play Abhigyana Shakuntalam.
(ii) Kalidasa wrote this story.
(iii) King Dushyanta is mentioned in this story.
(iv) The king was very happy to see the ring and sent a reward for the fisherman.

(i) Rajas of Sangha performed rituals.
(ii) They met in assemblies and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate.

(i) Slave men and women, (dasas and dasis), and
(ii) Landless agricultural labourers (kammakaras) were involved is transplanting activity.

There were several cities in the Mauryan Empire. These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila and Ujjain. Taxila was the gateway to the North- West, including Central Asia, while Ujjain was on the route from North to South India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities.

The 'Prashasti' word comes from Sanskrit and it means 'in praise of'. Court poets often wrote accounts in which they listed the achievements of the king and praised him. they engraved such accounts on pillars so that the people could read them.

Samudragupta was the son of Chandragupta I. He was the greatest ruler of his dynasty. Chandragupta was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of Maharajadhiraja.

Ring wells are used as toilets in some cases, and also, as drains and garbage dumps. These ring wells are usually found in individual houses.

The skills and knowledge needed in huntergatherer communities were:
(i) There were several animals that ran fast so their need was to run faster.
(ii) To hunt animals or to catch fish and birds, people needed to be alert, quick and have a good presence of mind.
(iii) To collect plant produce, they needed to find out which plants or parts of plants were edible (that can be eaten) as many plants or their parts were poisonous.
(iv) They needed to know the seasons when the fruits would ripen.
(v) They needed the skills and knowledge to make weapons and arms for hunting animals easily.
(vi) They needed the skills to use their weapons effectively.

It is important to study about our past as it gives a lot of information regarding the political, social, economic and cultural life of the people in the earlier days. By studying about our past:
(i) We can find out about the eating habits, the clothing and housing pattern of the people of the earlier times.
(ii) We can gather information about the lives of hunters, farmers, merchants, priest, craftsmen, musicians, poets and scientists.
(iii) We can learn about the lives of children, the songs they sang, the plays they saw, the games that they played and the kind of toys with which they played.

Sangha could be joined by brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.