Fjord:
1. A fjord is a narrow and deep sea inlet between steep cliffs.
2. It reduces the speed of wind irrespective of its direction and protect harbour.
3. The force of sea waves are also controlled.
4. Fjords are best situated for natural harbours.

(i) The rivers of Asia originate mostly from the central highlands.
(ii) The Ob, Yenise and Lena are the major rivers that flow towards the north and drain into the Arctic Ocean.
(iii) These rivers remain frozen during winter.
(iv) On the other hand, South Asia has many perennial rivers
(v) E.g. Brahmaputra, Indus, Ganga and Irrawaddy which originate from the snow covered high mountains that do not freeze during winter.
(vi) The Euphrates and Tigris flow in West Asia.
(vii) The Amur, Huang He, Yangtze and Mekong, rivers flow in the south and south eastern parts of Asia.

Important lines of latitude:
1. North pole 90^o N.
2. Tropic of Capricorn 231/2^o S.
3. Arctic Circle 661/2^o N.
4. Antartic Circle 661/2^o S.
5. Tropic of Cancer 231/2^o N.
6. South Pole 90^o S.
7. Equator 0^o.
Zones of the Earth:
Torrid zone:
(i) It lies 0^o to 231/2^o North and South latitude.
(ii) The Sun's rays fall vertically over this region and the average temperature is very high.
Temperate zone:
(i) It lies 231/2^o N to 661/2^o North and South latitude.
(ii) The Sun's rays fall slantingly. Moderate temperature prevails in this region.
Frigid zone:
(i) It lies 661/2^o N to 90^o North and South latitude.
(ii) The Sun's rays fall further inclined, throughout the year. The temperature is very low.

(i) We see the shape of the Earth as a whole and to know its unique features, a three dimensional model of the Earth was created with a specific scale.
(ii) There are imaginary lines which are drawn on the globe horizontally and vertically to find a location and calculate distance and time.

Flood:
An overflow of a large amount of water, beyond its normal limits, especially on the rain fed areas is called a flood.
Do's during flood:
(i) Cut off gas connection and electricity.
(ii) Leave immediately through the prescribed.
(iii) Drink hot water.
Don'ts:
(i) Try to connect electricity once it is cut.
(ii) Operate vehicles.
(iii) Swim against floods.
(iv) Avoid going on excursions.
(v) Neglect flood warning messages.

Pallava's Contribution to Architecture:
Pallava Period is known for architectural splendour. Pallava architecture can be classified as
(i) Rock Cut temples - Mahendravarman style
(ii) Monolithic Rathas and Sculptural Mandapas - Mamallan style
(iii) Structural temples - Rajasimhan style and Nandivarman sryle
Mahendra Style:
(i) The best example of Mahendra Varma style monuments are cave temples at Mandagapattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirapalli, Vallam, Tirukazhukkundram and
Siyamangalam.
Mamalla style:
(i) The five rathas popularly called Panchapandavar rathas, signify five different style of temple architecture.
(ii) Each ratha has been carved out of a single rock.
(iii) So they are called monolithic.
(iv) The popular mandapams they built are mahishasuramardhini mandapam, Thirumoorthi mandapam and Varaha mandapam.
Rajasimha style:
(i) Narasimhavarma II, also known as Rajasimha constructed structural temples using stone blocks.
(ii) The best example for the structural temple is Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram.
(iii) This temple was built by using sand stones.
Nandivarma style:
(i) The last stage of the Pallava architecture is also represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas.
(ii) The best example is Vaikunda Perumal temple at Kanchipuram.

1. Sakuntala
2. Malavikagnimitra
3. Vikramaoorvashiyam
4. Megaduta
5. Rahuvamsa
6. Kumarasambava
7. Ritusamhara

Sresti: Sresti traders usually settled at a standard place.
Sarthavaha: Sarthavaha traders were caravan traders who carried their goods to different places.

(i) When Samaudragupta become emperor, he carried on a Vigorous Compaign all over the Country.
(ii) In the Southern Pallava Kingdom, the king who was defeated by Samudragupta was Vishnugopa.
(iii) He conquered nine Kingdom's in northern India.
(iv) He reduced 12 rulers of the southern India forced them to pay tribute.
(v) He also received homage from the rulers of East Bengal, Assam, Nepal, the eastern part of Punjab and Various tribes of Rajasthan.

(i) The break-up of Mauryan Empire resulted in the invasion of Sakas, Scythians, Parthians, Indo-Greeks of Bactrain Greeks and Kilshanas from the north-west.
(ii) The most important features of the Post - Mauryan period was the growth of trade and commerce, both internally as well as externally.
(iii) These were two major internal land routes in ancient India, ie, Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha.
(iv) The important ports on the western coasts were Sopara and Broach. On easten coast were Arikamedu and Kaveripattinam.
(v) The trade between India and Rome flourished during this period.
(vi) There was constant trade in silk between India and China.
(vii) The Kushanas and the Satvahanas especially benefited from their trade with the Roman Empire.
(viii) India forged trade relations with Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, Burma and China also.

The religious policy of Kanishka:
(i) Kanishka was an ardent Buddhist.
(ii) Kanishka's empire was a Buddhist empire
(iii) Kanishka adopted Buddhism under the influence of Asvaghosha, a celebrated monk from Pataliputra
(iv) Though a great warrior and an empire builder, Kanishka was as equal as the exponent and champion of Mahayanism
(v) Kanishka made Buddhism as the state religion and built many stupas and monasterie in Mathura, Taxila and many other Parts of his kingdom
(vi) He sent Buddhist missionaries to Tibet, China and many countries of central Asia for the propagation of buddha's gospel
(vii) He organised the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalavana near Srinagar.

1. He was one of the best known Indo-Greek kings.
2. He is said to have ruled a large kingdom in the north-west of the country.
3. His coins were found over an extensive area ranging from Kabul valley and Indus river to western Uttar Pradesh.
4. Menander is believed to have become a Buddhist and promoted Buddhism.

1. GautamiputraSatakarni was the greatest ruler of the family.
2. In the Nasik prashasti, published by his mother Gautami Balasri, Gautamiputra Satakami is described as the destroyer of Sakas, Yavanas (Greeks) and Pahlavas (Parthians).
3. Their domain included Maharashtra, North Konkan, Berar, Gujarat, Kathiawar and Malwa.
4. His ship coins are suggestive of Andhras skill in seafaring and their naval power.

The break-up of Mauryan Empire resulted in the invasions of Sakas, Scythians, Parthians, Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks and Kushanas from the north-west.

Merits of democracy
(i) In democracy the final decision rest in hand of the ruler elected by people.
(ii) There, is free and fair election held in democracy.
(iii) Democracy enhances dignity of citizen.
(iv) It allows us to correct our mistakes.
(v) It is the form of govenment in which rulers are elected by people.
Demerits:
(i) Leaders keeps on changing this leads to instability
(ii) Democracy is all about political competition and power play there is no scope for morality
(iii) So many people have to be consulted in a democracy that it leads to delays
(iv) Democracy leads to corruption for it is based on electoral competition
(v) Ordinary people don't know what is good for them, they should not decide anything.

(i) Karikalvalavan or Karikalan was the most famous of the chola kings.
(ii) He defeated the combined army of the cheras, Pandyas and the eleven velir chieftains who supported them at Venni, a small village in the Thanjavur region.
(iii) He converted forests into cultivable lands. He built kallanai across the river Kaveri to develop agriculture.
(iv) Their port puhar attracted merchants from various regions of the Indian Ocean.
(v) The Pattinapaalai, a poetic work in the Pathinenkeezhkanakku, gives elaborate information of the trading activity during the rule of karikalan.

On the basis of raw materials, industries are classified as
(i) Agro based industries - Cotton textiles, Sugar mills and Food processing.
(ii) Forest based industries - Paper mills, Furniture making, Building Materials.
(iii) Mineral based industries - Cement industry, Iron industry, and Aluminum Industries.
(iv) Marine based industries - Sea food processing.

Primary activities:
(i) Agriculture
(ii) Cattle rearing
(iii) Fishing
(iv) Mining
(v) Collection of fruits, nuts, honey, rubber, resin and medicinal herbs, lumbering.

(i) Europe is the third most populous continent, after Asia and Africa.
(ii) The population of Europe was 742 million in 2018, which accounted for 9.73% of the world's population.
(iii) The population density in Europe is 34 persons / km².
(iv) Monaco has the highest density of population in Europe [26105 persons / km²] as well as in the world.
(v) Iceland has a very low density of population. [3 persons / km²]

Volga, Danube, Dnieper, Rhine, Rhone, Po, Thames.

(i) The population is unevenly distributed because of various physical features.
(ii) River plains and industrial regions have high density of population, whereas low density is found in the interior parts of Asia.

(i) The plateau of Anatolia (Pontine to Taurus)
(ii) The plateau of Iran (Elburz to Zagros mt)
(iii) The plateau of Tibet (Kunlun to Himalayas)