Important lines of latitude:
1. North pole 90^o N.
2. Tropic of Capricorn 231/2^o S.
3. Arctic Circle 661/2^o N.
4. Antartic Circle 661/2^o S.
5. Tropic of Cancer 231/2^o N.
6. South Pole 90^o S.
7. Equator 0^o.
Zones of the Earth:
Torrid zone:
(i) It lies 0^o to 231/2^o North and South latitude.
(ii) The Sun's rays fall vertically over this region and the average temperature is very high.
Temperate zone:
(i) It lies 231/2^o N to 661/2^o North and South latitude.
(ii) The Sun's rays fall slantingly. Moderate temperature prevails in this region.
Frigid zone:
(i) It lies 661/2^o N to 90^o North and South latitude.
(ii) The Sun's rays fall further inclined, throughout the year. The temperature is very low.

(i) The Western Chalukya empire ruled most of the western deccan, South India, between the 10^th and 12^th Centuries.
(ii) They were the descendants of Badami chalukyas ruled from kalyani (modern day Basavakalyan)
(iii) In 1973, Tariapa - II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Bijapur region defeated Parmara of Malwa.
(iv) Tailapa - II occupied Kalyani his fimasty quickly grew into an empire under Someswara - I.
(v) Someswara - I moved the capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani.
(vi) For over a century, the western chalukyas and the chola dynasty of Thanjavur, fought many fierce battles to control the fertile region of vengi.
(vii) During the rule of Vikramaditya VI in the late 1le century vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukyas control.
(viii) The Kasi Visweshvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti, the Kalleshwara temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi represeni well known examples of the architecture of western Chaitrkyas of Kalyani.

(i) Invention of zero and the consequent evolution of the decimal system were the legacy of Guptas to the modem world.
(ii) Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and Brahmagupta were. foremost astronomers and mathematicians of the time.
(iii) Aryabhatta, in his book Surya Siddhanta, explained the true causes of solar and lunar eclipses.
(iv) He was the first Indian astronomer to declare that the earth revolves around its own axis.
(v) Dhanvantriwas a famous scholar in the field of medicine. He was a specialist in Ayurveda. Charaka was a medical scientist. Susruta was the first Indian to explain the process of surgery.

(i) When Samaudragupta become emperor, he carried on a Vigorous Compaign all over the Country.
(ii) In the Southern Pallava Kingdom, the king who was defeated by Samudragupta was Vishnugopa.
(iii) He conquered nine Kingdom's in northern India.
(iv) He reduced 12 rulers of the southern India forced them to pay tribute.
(v) He also received homage from the rulers of East Bengal, Assam, Nepal, the eastern part of Punjab and Various tribes of Rajasthan.

Local bodies play an important role in the development of villages and cities, because there are many services provided by local bodies to the people like drinking water supply, street lighting, Drainage and sewage pipe system, Laying down roads and maintenance, laying public parks, libraries, play grounds, etc. The main work of local bodies is activation of central and state government schemes to the common people.

(i) The Gandhara School of Art flourished during his time.
(ii) The most favourite subject of the Gandhara artists was the carving of sculptures of Buddha.
(iii) Both Sakas and Kushanas were patrons of Gandhara School.
(iv) The art of the Gandhara School was primarily Mahayana.
(v) The Mahayana Buddhist learnt the art of the carving out caves from the Greeks and become skilled in rock cut architecture.

(i) Pushyamitra's kingdom extended westward to include Ujjain and Vidisha.
(ii) He Successfully repulsed the invasion of Bactria king, Menander.
(iii) Pushyamitra thwarted an attack from the Kalinga King Kharavela.
(iv) He also conquered Vidarba.

(i) Karikalvalavan or Karikalan was the most famous of the chola kings.
(ii) He defeated the combined army of the cheras, Pandyas and the eleven velir chieftains who supported them at Venni, a small village in the Thanjavur region.
(iii) He converted forests into cultivable lands. He built kallanai across the river Kaveri to develop agriculture.
(iv) Their port puhar attracted merchants from various regions of the Indian Ocean.
(v) The Pattinapaalai, a poetic work in the Pathinenkeezhkanakku, gives elaborate information of the trading activity during the rule of karikalan.

(i) Asia is the biggest continent.
(ii) It has different types of land features such as mountain, plateau, plain, valley, bay, island etc.
(iii) It also has different climatic conditions from the equator to polar region.
(iv) Many races, languages, religions and cultures are followed by people who live in Asia.
(v) So, Asia is called 'the land of contrasts'.

The Sun is overhead on a line of longitude only once in a day.

(i) The Earth which is spherical, is flat at the poles and bulges at the Equator.
(ii) The Earth cannot be compared with any other geometrical shape as it has a very unique shape.
(iii) Hence, its shape is called a geoid.

(i) Due to heavy rainfall from North east Monsoon.
(ii) Inefficient engineering design in the construction of embankments, dams, and canals
(iii) Did not follow some important safety precautions.

A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society involving human and material loss.

(i) Grama Sabha
(ii) Three tier local body governance
(iii) Reservations
(iv) Panchayat Elections
(v) Tenure
(vi) Finance Commission
(v) Account and Audit, etc

(i) Drinking water supply
(ii) Street Lighting
(iii) Maintenance of Clean Environment
(iv) Primary Health Facilities
(v) Laying of Roads
(vi) Building flyovers
(vii) Space for markets

(i) When the people themselves directly express their will on public affairs the type of government is called pure or direct democracy.
(ii) Ex: Switzerland.

Direct democracy and Representative democracy are the types of democracy.