(i) Aqueducts were huge channels to supply water.
(ii) The Roman emperors built these aqueducts to bring water to the city for the baths, fountains and toilets.
(iii) Amphitheatres were open arenas surrounded by tiers of seats where citizens could watch all kinds of shows.
(iv) King Augustus was one of the important emperors of the Roman empire.

(i) Merchants brought special gifts like vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth for the King.
(ii) Wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins were imported into Barygaza. While exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes.
(iii) Ships were steered in by skillful and experienced local fishermen.

(i) Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands.
(ii) A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse was found at the site.
(iii) Other findings include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware which was named after a city in Italy.
(iv) Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site.
(v) Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth.

The archaeologists have found about these cities through the following:
(i) Jatakas: These were stories that were probably composed by ordinary people and then written down and preserved by Buddhist monks.
(ii) Sculptures: These were carved structures, depicting peoples' lives in towns and villages as well as in the forests. Many of these sculptures were used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings that were visited by people.
(iii) Ring wells: In many cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots, or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other. These are known as ring wells.
(iv) From the accounts of sailors and travellers who visited various places, one of the most detailed accounts that have been found was by an unknown Greek sailor. He described all the ports he visited.

(i) Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the crossroads of two major routes of travel and trade - from the North- West to the East and from North to South.
(ii) Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculptures were produced.
(iii) Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas.
(iv) Mathura was also a religious centre - there were Buddhist monasteries, Jain shrines and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna.

(i) Growth of towns: The establishment of kingdoms and empires led to an increase in agriculture and trade. Internal and overseas trade routes opened up. These developments resulted in the growth of towns.
(ii) Greater agriculture production: Agricultural production increased due to an increased use of iron tools. It became possible to produce more from the same land. Iron tools such as axe helped in clearing forests. The kings of the period also encouraged the building of irrigation works and dug wells, tanks and canals.
(iii) Growth of crafts: Arts and crafts also flourished. Each village had potters, weavers, dyers, metal workers, carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, garland makers, basket makers and other craftsmen.
(iv) Functions of town: Some towns were religious centres, while others were administrative centres. Broach, Sopara and Tamralipti were trading centres.

(i)The picture shows the rows of pots which are known as ring wells.
(ii)These are made-up of ceramics.
(iii)The function of the ringwells have been used as toilets in·some cases, and as drains and garbage dumps. These ringwells are usually found in individual houses.

(i)The sculpture is associated with stupas in Madhya Pradesh.
(ii)It helps us to find about old cities
(iii)The sculpture has been found in Sanchi Madhya Pradesh.

We find out about early cities of the sub-continent through the following sources:
(i) Stories The Jatakas were stories that were probably composed by ordinary people and then written down and preserved by Buddhist monks. The Jatakas throw sufficient light on the lives of the people who used to live there.
(ii) Accounts of travellers and sailors Another way of finding out about early cities is from the accounts of sailors and travellers who visited them.
(iii) Sculptures We can use other kinds of evidences to find out about life in some of these early cities. Sculptors carved scenes depicting peoples lives in towns and villages, as well as in the forest.
(iv) Archaeological findings In many early cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other. They have also found many silver and copper coins. From all these findings, many important facts about the early cities can be known.

(i) Arikamedu is located in Pondicherry. Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, this site was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands.
(ii) A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, was found at the site.
(iii) Other finds of Arikamedu included pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae, stamped red-glazed pottery, local made pottery which used Roman designs.
(iv) Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site.
(vi) Small tanks have been found that were probably used to dye cloth.
(vii) There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass.

In the Northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. The post was hereditary, i.e. men from the same family held the position for generations.
The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. He had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. The king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge and sometimes as a policeman.