The American concept of Secularism means the separation of religion and state. They both have separate sphere of their own jurisdiction. No religious classification can be on the basis of any public policy. State cannot aid any religious institution. It cannot extend financial support to educational institutions run by religious communities. Religion is totally a private matter and not a matter of state policy or law.

(i) Brahmo Samaj : The Brahmo Samaj formed in 1830,prohibited all forms of idolatry and sacrifice, believed in the Upanishads, and forbade its members from criticizing other religious practices. It critically drew upon the ideals of religions, especially those of Hinduism and looked at their negative and positive dimensions.
(ii) Prarthana Samaj : It was established in 1867 at Bombay. The Prarthana Samaj sought to remove caste restrictions, abolish child marriage, encourage the education of women, and end the ban on widow remarriage.
(iii) Paramhans Mandali : In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste. Many of its reformers and members of reform associations were people of the upper castes.

Following were the terms and treaty of Allahabad:
(i) The kingdom of Awadh was restored to the Nawab Shuja-ud-daullah.
(ii) The nawab paid the company a sum of Rs.50 lakhs and the company promised to support Awadh against any outside attack, using its own troops, but the expenses would be borne by the nawab.
(iii) The Mughal empire granted the Company the 'Diwani' of Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa.
(iv) The company gave the Mughal emperor an annual pension of Rs.26 Lakhs.

Adivasi societies are distinctive because there is often very little or no hierarchy among them. This makes them radically different from communities organised around principles of jati-varna (caste) or those that were ruled by kings. They have their own culture, customs, religions etc.

Input Raw materials like leather, labour, cost of land, transport, infrastructure.
Process Activities to convert hide into tough leather, spinning, printing.
Output Leather shoes

The two steps that government has taken to conserve plants and animals are as follows:
(a) The government has taken some good steps in order to conserve plants and animals which include establishment of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves in different parts of India.
(b) Awareness programmes like social forestry and Vanamahotasava are encouraged at the regional and community levels.

Bahadur Shah Zafar's support to the rebellion had a significant impact. Threatened by the expansion of British rule, many of the ruling families felt that if the Mughal emperor could rule again, they too would be able to rule their own territories once more, under Mughal authority. When people saw an alternative possibility which appealed to them, they felt inspired and enthused. It gave them the courage, hope and confidence to act.
Some examples of this effect are:
(i) Many troop regiments mutinied to join other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow.
(ii) Nana Saheb proclaimed himselfPeshwa and a governor under the Mughal king.
(iii) Birjis Qadr, son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah in Lucknow, acknowledged that he ruled under the Mughal king.
(iv) In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the general of Nana Saheb.

Distribution of Cotton Textile Industry in the World:
The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world. It originated in the Indus Valley about 5000years ago. Till the industrial revolution, cotton cloth was made by using hand spinning techniques and handlooms. The industrial revolution in the 18^th century brought a phenomenal change in the textile industry. Power looms facilitated development of cotton textile industry, first in the Great Britain and later in the other parts of the world. India, China, and Japan are the important producers of cotton textiles

(i)Water supply in Chennai is marked by shortages.
(ii)Municipal supply meets only about half the needs of the people of the city, on an average.
(iii) There are areas which get more water regularly than others. Those areas that are close to the storage points get more water, whereas colonies further away receive less water.
(iv) Apart from the availability of water, access to 'safe' drinking water is also available to some people and this depends on their afford ability.
(v) The burden of shortfall in water supply falls mostly on the poor.
(vi) The middle class, when faced with water shortage, are able to cope through a variety of private means such as digging bore wells, buying water from tankers and using bottled water for drinking.

(i) In 1854, the East India Company in London sent an educational despatch to the Governor-General in India. Issued by Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of the Company, it came to be known as Wood's Despatch.
(ii) Outlining the educational policy that was to be followed in India, it emphasized once again the practical benefits of a system of European learning, as opposed to Oriental knowledge.
(iii) It emphasized on European ways of life, as it would change their tastes and desires, and create a demand for British goods.
(iv) European learning would improve the moral character of Indians. It would make them truthful and honest, and thus supply the Company with civil servants who could be trusted and depended upon.
(v) Education in English crippled Indians, distanced them from their own social surroundings, and made them "strangers in their own lands". Speaking a foreign tongue, despising local culture, the English educated did not know how to relate to the masses.
(vi) Western education, Mahatma Gandhi said, focused on reading and writing rather than oral know-ledge; it valued textbooks rather than live experience and practical knowledge. He argued that education ought to develop a person's mind and soul.

In a democracy, government is formed after elections. After the elections, a list is
prepared which indicates the winner of each Lok Sabha seat. These winners become the Members of Parliament (MPs). The political party with the majority of these MPs forms the government.
Since there are 543 seats in Lok Sabha, a party must secure at least half i.e. 272 seats in Parliament to form government. Sometimes, no single political party is able
to win 272 seats on its own and get the majority to form the government. In that
situation, two or more political parties with similar concerns join together to get the
majority and form a Coalition Government. 

Yes, Shanti did get a fair trial. Firstly, Shanti has given a copy of the charge sheet and all other evidence that the prosecution presented against her. Shanti was charged with the offence of theft that was defined as a crime in the law. The trial was held in an open court in public view. Her brother could attend the court hearings.
Shanti's lawyer was given an opportunity to cross-examine all the prosecution witnesses.
Although the police filed a case of theft against Shanti, the judge assumed her to be innocent. The judge decided the matter only on the basis of the evidence before the court. The evidence showed that some young men and not Shanti was the thief. In Shanti's case, justice was finally done to her because she was given a fair trial.

The partition of Bengal infuriated people all over India. All sections of the Congress opposed it. Large public meetings and demonstrations were organised and new methods of protest developed. Its outcome was the Swadeshi Movement.

Executive is that organ of government which implements the laws made by the legislature.

(i) When the Portuguese first came to India in search of spices, they landed in Calicut on the Kerala coast in South - West India.
(ii) The cotton textiles which they took back to Europe, along with the spices, came to be called as "calico" (derived from Calicut), and subsequently, calico became the general name for all cotton textiles.
(iii) By the early 18th century, worried by the popularity of Indian textiles, wool and silk makers in England began protesting against the import of Indian cotton textiles.
(iv) In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation banning the use of printed cotton textiles chintz - in England. This Act was known as the CalicoAct

Generally, it is believed that mining is the only form of mineral extraction. hilt ~here are many other techniques for mineral extraction.
These are :
(i)Mining: Mining is the process of excavation of the minerals both from deep as well as shallow areas. There are two methods of mining:
(a) Open cast mining : It is a mining technique in which material is extracted by digging a large hole, rather than tunneling.
(b) Shaft mining : It is a type of underground mining done by use of a rnineshaft. It may also refer to the act of excavation the shaft itself.
(ii) Drilling: It is a type of shaft mining. It is generally used for oil and natural gas excavation.
(iii) Quarrying: It is generally used to extract minerals which lie near the surface by simply digging.