James Mill was a severe critic of Orientalists.
He thought that European education was essential in India because:
(i) The knowledge of the East was full of errors and unscientific thoughts.
(ii) The aim of education ought to be to teach what was useful and practical.
Thomas Macaulay suggested that:
(i) India was an uncivilised country that needed to be civilized.
(ii) No branch of Eastern knowledge could be compared to Western knowledge. Oriental learning was of no practical use.

Jallianwala Bagh is a garden near the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar

The founder of Saryashodhak Samaj Jyotirao Phule was low-caste leader.
He criticised the caste inequality in our society in the following ways:
(i) He opposed the idea that Brahmans were superior just because they were Aryans. He argued that Aryans were foreigners, who came from outside the subcontinent and defeated and subjugated the true children of our country. These native people had lived here from before the coming of Aryans.
(ii) He claimed that the upper castes had no right to their land and power, in reality the land belonged to the natives of the country.
(iii) He proposed that Shudras (labouring castes) and Ati Shudras (untouchables) should unite to challenge caste discrimination.
(iv) By writing the book Gulamgiri which means slavery in 1873, Jyotirao justified his opinion about the caste inequality in our society.

Handloom weaving in India does not die out when cheap British machine-made cloth flooded the Indian market because:
(i) Saris with intricate borders or cloth with traditional woven patterns, which had a wide demand amongst the rich and middle classes, could not be produced by machines.
(ii) The textile manufacturers in Britain did not produce the very coarse cloths used by the poor people in India. The local handloom weavers filled this gap by supplying the people with their requirements.

The refugees who came from Pakistan were mostly rural landlords, lawyers, teachers, traders and small shopkeepers. Partition changed their lives, as most of them were without homes in Delhi and were forced to live in refugee camps for years.
They had to take up new occupations as hawkers, vendors, carpenters, and ironsmiths. Some of them prospered due to their hard work.

The sepoys raised the objection that the new cartridges they had been asked to use were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. It was a great insult to the religions of Indian sepoys the Hindus as well as the Muslims. It also appeared to the Indian soldiers that the aim of the Britishers was to convert all the sepoys into Christianity.

1. Peasant Sir, why are you forcing me to sign the contract?
2. Planter It is a profitable cultivation. I will give you some money as advance. After delivering indigo, you will get the rest of the money.
3. Peasant But sir, you need the best soil for indigo plantation. In our best land, we usually grow rice, pulses. We can not use this land for indigo cultivation as it exhausts the soil. After an indigo harvest, the land is not usable for rice production.

James Mill was a famous economist and political philosopher from Scotland.

The changes that occurred in the composition of the company's army are as follows:
(i) Before colonisation, the Mughal army was mainly composed of cavalry. i.e. trained soldiers on horsebacks or sawars and the infantry or paidal (foot) soldiers.
(ii) In the early 19th century, the British began to develop a uniform military culture. The soldiers were given European-style training. Drill and discipline were introduced which regulated their life far more than before.
(iii) After the battles with the Marathas and the Mysore rulers. the Company realised the importance of strengthening its cavalry force.

We periodise a time in order to characterize it into different periods on the basis of some significant events that have happened during those days. These demarcations of time into different periods in the past is known as 'periodization', which become important for history as they help to reflect our ideas quickly about the happenings and changes from one period to the next.

(i) The aims and objectives of Congress in first twenty years were:
(a) Extension of irrigation.
(b) Moderate assessment of land revenue.
(c) Stoppage of export of food grains from India.
(d) Protection of interests of Indians abroad.
(e) Protection of farmers against exploitation at the hands of moneylenders.
(f) Development of indigenous industries.
(g) Position of Indians in government and administration should be improved.
(h) They demanded legislative councils in all Provinces.
(ii) The Congress held discussions, published newspaper~, wrote articles and showed how British rule was leading to the economic ruin of the country. They sent petitions, passed resolutions, criticised British rule in their speeches and sent representatives to different parts of the country to mobilise public opinion in India and abroad.

(i) Before British rule, tribal people had tribal chiefs who were important and had certain amount of economic power and had their own police as well as rules at some places, but they lost considerable powers when Britishers arrived.
(ii) Britishers wanted that moving tribal groups should settle down and become peasant cultivators as settled tribes were easier to control.
(iii)The Britishers tried to settle down Jhum cultivators but they were unsuccessful.
(iv) Some forest areas were declared as reserved forests which would provide timber to Britishers.
(v) The traders and money lenders started coming in forests. They wanted to buy forest products at very cheap prices which caused problem.
(vi) Britishers declared the forest as a state property.

The East India Company introduced the Permanent Settlement in 1793 to increase the flow of its revenue.
According to the terms of the Permanent Settlement:
(i) The rajas and taluqdars were recognized as Zamindars.
(ii) Zamindars collected revenue from the peasants.
(iii) The revenue amount to be paid to the Company was fixed.
(iv) The revenue amount was not to be increased in the future.
(v) Zamindars were to invest in improving the land.

(i) In 1600, the East India Company required a charter from the ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right to trade with the East.
(ii) This meant that no other trading group in England could compete with the East India Company. (iii)With this charter, the company could venture across the oceans, looking for new lands from which it could buy goods at a cheaper price, and carry them back to Europe to sell at higher prices.
(iv) The company did not have to fear competition from other English trading companies

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar was a social reformer, philosopher, academician, philanthropist and a key figure of the Bengal Renaissance. His works and contribution for the upliftment of women are as follows:
(i) He did a lot for the education of women, as he believed that it was our primary duty to educate a woman because she was the real teacher of her child. He opened and ran many schools for girls at his own expense.
(ii) Vidyasagar strongly protested against polygamy and child marriage.
(iii) It was due to his effort, the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856 was passed which allowed the widows to remarriage. He had also opposed the sati system.
Ishwarchandra worked endlessly to provide equal education to all men and women irrespective of their caste, religion and gender. He believed that the status of women and all kinds of injustice and inequalities that they face could be changed only through education.

There is a pattern in the tasks that Baiga men and women did. We notice that the men did the physically harder work and work which required them to go far from home, like working in the fields and going for hunting animals Meanwhile, the Baiga women did the physically less demanding work and which kept them near their homes probably to look after their children and the home, gathering fruits for consumption and unburnt woods for fuel etc.

The advertisement for Lipton Tea suggests that Royal people all over the world prefer this tea.

In the above map, the areas which are under the British rule are-some parts of East UP, Bihar, Bengal, Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Madras city, some parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

The Portuguese first came into India in search of spices. They first landed in Calicut on the Kerala coast in south-west India.

It was recommended that a certain percentage of seats in legislatures as well as jobs in government, should be reserved for members of the lowest castes as they had been deprived of all privileges since ages.

In this revolt, all the sepoys marched to the Britishers' buildings, houses, police stations and burnt them. They killed the British officials. The main role in these activities was that of sepoys. Therefore, the Revolt of 1857 is also called sepoy mutiny (Sepoy means soldiers and mutiny means 'Soldiers March').

Historians divided the history of world into three periods - Ancient, Modern and Medieval. Each period has some distinct features. The modern period of the history is said to have begun with exploration, renaissance and reformation movements. This classification of history into three periods is known as the Periodization of History.