(i) The Second World War ended in the year 1945. After the end of war, ideological differences emerged between the US and the USSR.  
(ii) Both of them embarked upon increasing their influence on the newly independent countries. The entire world was divided into two armed camps.
(iii)It was the beginning of a cold war. Therefore, in the Bandung summit of the Afro-Asian countries, it was decided that they would not join any of the groups and would remain neutral and not align with any of the two powers. Thus, non-alignment movement, as named by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, came into being. The main contributors to the non-alignment movement were the representatives of India, Yugoslavia, Egypt, Ghana and Indonesia.

The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in India due to the following factors:
(i) Competition in Foreign Markets By the beginning of the 19th century, English-made cotton textiles ousted Indian textiles from their traditional markets in Europe, Africa and America. This threw thousands of Indian weavers out of employment.
(ii) High Import Duties/Ban on Imports Exporting textiles to England became increasingly difficult due to the very high duties imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain.
(iii) Capture of the Indian Market By the 1830s, British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets. By the 1880s, two-thirds of all cotton clothes worn by Indians were made of cloth produced in Britain.

The atrocities like the unnecessary killing of innocent women and children, torture, mutilation etc took place because:
(i) The British wanted to teach a lesson to the rebels to never again rise against them. The way they found was to commit horrifying atrocities which would not be forgotten for ages.
(ii) The rebels released their pent up anger due to having been deprived of their traditional lives by the measures gradually introduced by the British over the last few years.

Today, different types of surveys are done by government and private companies. Surveys can be done on the basis of demographic changes, incomes, employment, and interests, etc. Surveys can be done by questionnaire method or interview method. Governments find out about the information of young people in the school by the records and the records of school authorities.

(i) One important function of the police is to investigate any complaint about the crime.
(ii) An investigation includes recording statements of witnesses and collecting different kinds of evidences.
(iii) On the basis of investigation, the police is required to form an opinion.
(iv) If the police thinks that the evidence points to the guilt of the accused person, then it can file a charge sheet in the court.
(v) Ultimately, the judge takes the decision whether a person is guilty or innocent.

After the creation of Andhra Pradesh, A States Reorganisation commission was set up in 1956, recommending the redrawing of district and provincial boundaries to form compact provinces of Assamese, Bengal, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada speakers respectively. North India was broken into several states. In 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate sates for Marathi and Gujarati speakers. In 1956, the state of Punjab was also divided into Punjab and Haryana, the former for the Punjabi speakers (who were mostly Sikhs), the latter for the rest (who did not speak Punjabi but versions of Haryanvi or Hindi).

(i) Muslim women such as the Begums of Bhopal played a notable role in promoting education among women. They founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh.
(ii) Another remarkable woman, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain, started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta. She was a fearless critic of conservative ideas, arguing that religious leaders of every faith accorded an inferior place to women.
(iii) By the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities. Some of them trained to be doctors, while some became teachers. Many women began to write and publish their critical views on the condition of women in society.
(iv) Tarabia Shinde : She was the woman who was educated at home at Poona, and she published a book, Stripurushtulna, criticizing the social differences between men and women.
(v) Pandita Ramabai : She was a great scholar of Sanskrit. She felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women, and wrote a book about the miserable life of upper-caste Hindu women. She founded a widows' home at Pune to provide shelter to widows who had been treated badly by their husband's relatives. Here, women were trained so that they could support themselves economically.

(i) Indigo Commission was formed to enquire into the system of Indigo production following the movement of the ryots of Bengal against the British Indigo planters in the late 1850s.
(ii) The Commission held the planters guilty and criticised them for the coercive methods they used for indigo cultivators.
(iii) The Indigo Commission held the planters guilty and revealed how the planters forced the ryots to receive loan and sign contracts for the indigo cultivation. The indigo planters deprived the ryots of just prices for their crop. The commission also confirmed that the magistrates sided with the British planters in their torturous pursuits of indigo cultivation..

Privately-owned companies are always aiming for profit maximization. Foreign companies also come to India with the same motive. Availability of cheap labour is the prime attraction. Wages that the companies have to pay to workers, say in the USA, are far higher than what they pay to workers in poorer countries like India. Companies can get longer hours of work for lower pay.
Additional expenses like housing for workers are also fewer. Cost cutting can also be done by other more dangerous means because of lax safety rules in India. Due to high population and rampant unemployment, employers exploit workers because of their vulnerable positions and there is always the option to replace one employee with another.

Minerals generally occur in rocks of these forms:
1. In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals occur in the veins and the lodes. Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc, lead etc are obtained from these veins and lodes.
2. In sedimentary rocks, minerals occur in layers. Coal and some forms of iron ore are found like this. Minerals such as gypsum, potash, salt and sodium salt are found as a result of evaporation especially in arid regions.
3. Inthe decomposed surface rocks (a residual mass of weathered material), bauxite is formed.
4. In alluvial deposits or placer deposits, minerals which are not corroded by water are found. Such as gold, silver, tin and platinum.
5.  Inocean floor vast quantities of manganese nodules are found. Common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters.

(i) Agarias - a community of iron smelters were lived in this village.
(ii) In the late 19th century a series of famines devastated the dry tracts of India.

The soldiers who mutinied in Meerut rushed to Delhi and forced the Mughal king to give his backing to the revolt.
His writing a letter to all the chiefs to revolt was significant, as troops mutinied and joined other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur and" Lucknow.
Seeing this, the people of the towns and villages revolted and rallied around local leaders, zamindars and chiefs who were prepared to establish their authority and fight the British.
These leaders included Nana Saheb (Kanpur), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Begum Hazrat Mahal and Birjis Oadr (Lucknow), Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah (Faizabad), Bakht Khan (Bareilly) and Kunwar Singh (Bihar), among others. The British troops were outnumbered and were defeated in a number of battles.

Many historians have divided Indian history into ancient, medieval and modern. This periodisation has been borrowed from the West. 
According to them, a modern period was associated with the growth of science, reason, democracy, liberty, and equality. This view was accepted by the Western thinkers after the French Revolution.
Medieval period was a term used to describe a society where all these features of modern society did not exist.
If we accept this periodisation for our country, there must arise some problems. These are
We cannot justify the British Raj of India as the modern period.
At that time, people did not have equality, freedom or liberty. There was no economic growth and progress in the society.

Britain was referred to as the workshop of the world as its iron and steel industries started growing from 1850s and later gained success. So many countries started buying and selling iron from Britain in greater quantities and thus it was given the title 'workshop of world'.

Merchandised production of cotton textiles made Britain the foremost industrial nation in the 19th century.

USA, New Zealand, Iceland, Phillipines, Central America. In India, Geothermal plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Laddakh.

Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radio active elements like Uranium and Thorium. These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors and emit power.

Jawaharlal Nehru and Krishna Menon led the Indian delegation to the U.N. between 1952 and 1962.
They argued for the policy of non-alignment.

The second five year plan was formulated in 1956. Its main aim was development of heavy industries such as iron and steel and on the building of large dams. The effort was centralised at the state for regulating the economic policy for the next few decades.

British introduced the enfield rifles in the army, whose cartridge had a greased paper cover and its end was to be bitten off before loading it in to the rifle. The cartridge was greased with the fat of pigs and cows. The news about greased cartridges spread like wild-fire and became the immediate cause of revolt.

During the British rule in India, people never enjoyed equality, freedom or liberty. During this period, Indian economy was exploited and channelized for the development of British economy. In history, this period of British rule has been termed as 'Colonial' by many historians.

(i) In history we can find that whenever one country invaded or conquered another, it brought about some changes in the society in terms of values, customs, and practices.
(ii) These kind of political, economic, social and cultural changes as a result of subjugation of one country by another are termed as 'Colonization' in history.

(i) By the early 18th century, the wool and silk makers in England were worried by the popularity of Indian textiles in England markets. They began protesting the import of Indian cotton textiles.
(ii) During this period, the textiles industries in England had just begun to develop the Calico, which was an imitation of Indian style.
(iii) Now, cloth producers in England were in a situation to compete with Indian textiles and thus wanted to seize a secure market in England by preventing the entry of Indian textile. (iv) So in 1720, the British government enacted the Calico Act that banned the use of printed cotton textiles - chintz - in England

(a) Copper and Iron are the minerals that are used by us every day.
(b) Two regions that are rich in natural gas resources are Jaisalmer and Krishna-Godavari delta. 

(i) Potti Sriramulu was a Gandhian leader in Andhra Pradesh. He became famous because of a hunger strike.
(ii) He demanded for an independent state for Telugu speaking people.
(iii) On October 1,1953the new state of Andhra Pradesh came in to being after the demise of Potti Sriramulu.

(i) After partition, large number of Muslims decided to stay back in India rather than going to Pakistan. The number was so large that even if they wanted, it would have been difficult to shift them to somewhere else.
(ii) He demanded from the Ministers of States to deal with the minority group in a civilised manner. Secondly, providing them security and the rights of citizens in a democratic State was also his demand

(i) Sitaram Pandey was a sepoy in the Bengal Native Army. He served the English for 48 years and retired in 1860.
(ii) He was persuaded by his Commanding Officer, Norgate, to write his memoirs.
(iii) The agents emphasised the treacherous behaviour of the foreigners against the Kings. Moreover, a number of lies and promises were invented to persuade the soldiers to rebel against the English in order to restore the Emperor of Delhi to the throne.