dispersion medium-gas
dispersed phase-liquid

Anodic Oxidation: (Reverse the given reaction)
(E^o_ox ) = 0.76 V Cathodic reduction
E^o_cell = (E^o_ox )+ (E^o_red) 
= 0.76 + 0.34 = 1.1 V

For a first order reaction
t_1/2 = \(\frac { 0.693 }{ { k }}\)
t_1/2 does not depend on the initial concentration and it remains constant (whatever may be the initial concentration)
t_1/2 = 2.5 hrs

In the complex [M(en)₂(Ox)]Cl For the central metal ion M3+
The primary valence is = +3
The secondary valence = 6
sum of primary valence and secondary valence = 3 + 6 = 9

1. Langmuir explained the action of catalyst in heterogeneous catalysed reactions based on adsorption. The reactant molecules are adsorbed on the catalyst surfaces, so this can also be called as contact catalysis.
2. According to this theory, various steps involved in a heterogeneous catalyse reaction are given as follows:
(i) Reactant molecules diffuse from bulk to the catalyst surface.
(ii) The reactant molecules are adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst.
(iii) The adsorbed reactant molecules are activated and form activated complex which is decomposed to form the products.
(iv) The product molecules are desorbed.
(v) The product diffuse away from the surface of the catalyst.

S.No	Reagents or Reaction	Primary amine RNH2	Secondary amine R2NH	Tertiary amine R3N
1.	Carbylamine reaction or with CHCl3/KOH	Carbylamine is formed (unpleasant smell)	-	-
2.	Mustard oil reaction or CS2/HgCl2 (Hoffmann's mustard oil test)	Alkyl isothiocyanate is formed (Mustard oil odour)	-	-
3.	HNO2 (or) NaNO2 / HCl	Alcohol is formed +H2	Yellow oily nitrosoamine is formed, insoluble in water. (Liberman's Test)	Forms nitrite in cold, soluble in water.
4.	CH3COCl	N-acetyl derivative is formed	N,N- diacetyl derivative is formed	-
5.	Diethyl oxalate Hoffmann's method	Solid oxamide is formed	Liquid oxamic ester is formed	-
6.	Benzene sulphonyl chloride in presence of excess. KOH (Hinsberg's reaction)	N- alkyl benzene sulphonamide is formed (soluble)	N, N - dialkyl benzene sulphonamide is formed (Insoluble).	-
7.	With RX	1 mol → 2o amine 2 mol → 3o amine 3 mol → Quarternary salt	1 mol → 3o amine 2 mol → Quarternary salt	1 mol → Quarternary salt

A drug is a substance that is used to modify or explore physiological systems or pathological states for the benefit of the recipient. It is used for the purpose of diagnosis, prevention, cure/relief of a disease.
a) Classification of drugs:
Drugs are classified based on their properties such as chemical structure, pharmacological effect, target system, site of action etc.
b) Classification based on the chemical structure:
In this classification, drugs with a common chemical skeleton are classified into a single group. For example, ampicillin, amoxicillin, methicillin etc.. all have similar structure and are classified into a single group called penicillin. Similarly, we have other group of drugs such as opiates, steroids, catecholamines etc. Compounds having similar chemical structure are expected to have similar chemical properties. However, their biological actions are not always similar. For example, all drugs belonging to penicillin group have same biological action, while groups such as barbiturates, steroids etc.. have different biological action.
Penicillins

Classification based on Pharmacological effect:
In this classification, the drugs are grouped based on their biological effect that they produce on the recipient. For example, the medicines that have the ability to kill the pathogenic bacteria are grouped as antibiotics. This kind of grouping will provide the full range of drugs that can be used for a particular condition (disease). The physician has to carefully choose a suitable medicine from the available drugs based on the clinical condition of the recipient.
Examples:
Antibiotic drugs: amoxicillin, ampicillin, cefixime, cefpodoxime, erythromycin, tetracycline etc.. Antihypertensive drugs: propranolol, atenolol, metoprolol succinate, amlodipine etc...
Classification based on the target system (drug action):
In this classification, the drugs are grouped based on the biological system/process, that they target in the recipient. This classification is more specific than the pharmacological classification. For example, the antibiotics streptomycin and erythromycin inhibit the protein synthesis (target process) in bacteria and are classified in a same group. However, their mode of action is different. Streptomycin inhibits the initiation of protein synthesis, while erythromycin prevents the incorporation of new amino acids to the protein.
Classification based on the site of action (molecular target):
The drug molecule interacts with biomolecules such as enzymes, receptors etc, which are referred as drug targets. We can classify the drug based on the drug target with which it binds. This classification is highly specific compared to the others. These compounds often have a common mechanism of action, as the target is the same.

Primary structure of Proteins:
Proteins are polypeptide chains, made up of amino acids are connected through peptide bonds. The relative arrangement of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain is called the primary structure of the protein. Knowledge of this is essential as even small changes have potential to alter the overall structure and function of a protein.
\(\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~N}-\mathrm{Gly}-\mathrm{Met}-\mathrm{Phe}-\mathrm{Cys}-\mathrm{Arg}-\mathrm{Asp}-\mathrm{COOH}\)
α - Helix:
In the α-helix sub-structure, the amino acids are arranged in a right handed helical (spiral) structure and are stabilised by the hydrogen bond between the carbonyl oxygen of one amino acid (n residue) with amino hydrogen of the fifth residue (n + 4^th residue). The side chains of the residues protrude outside of the helix. Each turn of an α-helix contains about 3.6 residues and is about 5.4 Å long. The amino acid proline produces a kink in the helical structure and often called as a helix breaker due to its rigid cyclic structure.

1. Linear sequence of aminoacids
2. Linear
3. Composed of peptide bonds formed between amino acids.
Secondary structure of Proteins:
The amino acids in the polypeptide chain forms highly regular shapes (sub-structures) through the hydrogen bond between the carbonyl oxygen (-C=O) and the neighbouring amine hydrogen (-NH) of the main chain. α-Helix and β-strands or sheets are two most common substructures formed by proteins.

β-Strand:
β-Strands are extended peptide chain rather than coiled. The hydrogen bonds occur between main chain carbonyl group one such strand and the amino group of the adjacent strand resulting in the formation of a sheet like structure. This arrangement is called β-sheets.

(i) An acid is defined as a substance that has a tendency to donate a proton to another substance and base is a substance that has a tendency to accept a proton form other substance.
(ii) In other words, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor.
(iii) When hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, it donates a proton to the later. Thus, HCI behaves as an acid and H₂O is base. The proton transfer from the acid to base can be represented as
HCI + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + Cl^-
(iv) When ammonia is dissolved in water, it accepts a proton from water. In this case, ammonia (NH₃) acts as a base and H₂O is acid. The reaction is represented as
H₂O + NH₃ ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH^-
(v) Let us consider the reverse reaction following equilibrium.
\(\underset { proton\ donar\\ \quad \quad \ (acid) }{ HCl } +\underset { Proton\ acceptor\\ \quad \quad \quad \quad (base) }{ { H }_{ 2 }O } \leftrightharpoons \underset { Proton\ donar\\ \quad \quad \quad \quad \ (acid) }{ { H }_{ 2 }{ O }^{ + } } +\underset { Proton\ acceptor\\ \quad \quad \quad \quad \ (base) }{ { Cl }^{ - } } \) 
H₃O⁺ donates a proton to Cl^- to form HCI i.e., the products also behave as acid and base.
(vi) In general, Lowry - Bronsted (acid - base) reaction is represented as 
Acid₁ + Base₂ ⇌ Acid₂ + Base₁
(vii) The species that remains after the donation of a proton is a base (Base₁) and is called the conjugate base of the Bronsted acid (Acid₁). In other words, chemical species that differ only by a proton are called conjugate acid - base pairs.

Most of the elements exhibit, two types of valence namely primary valence and secondary valence and each element tend to satisfy both the valences.
The primary valence is referred the oxidation state of the metal atom.
The secondary valence as the coordination number. For example, according to Werner, the primary and secondary valences of cobalt are 3 and 6 respectively.
The primary valence of a metal ions ae always satisfied by negative ions.
For example in the complex CoCI₃.6NH₃. The primary valence of Co is +3 and is satisfied by 3CI^- ions.
The secondary valence is satisfied by negative ions, neutral molecules, positive ions or the combination of these.
For example, in CoCl₃.6NH₃ complex primary valence of cobalt +3 and it is satisfied by 3 CI^-.
The secondary valence of cobalt is 6 and is satisfied by six neutral ammonia molecules. where as in CoCI₆.NH₃. 
Secondary valence of Co = 5{It is satisfied five neutral molecules and a Cl^- ion}
According to Werner, there are two spheres of attraction around a metal atom/ion in a complex.

The inner /coordination sphere:
The groups present in this sphere are firmly attached to the metal.
The outer sphere / ionisation sphere:
The groups present in this sphere are loosely bound to the central metal ion and hence can be separated into ions upon dissolving the complex in a suitable solvent.
The primary valencies are non-directional. while the secondary valencies are directional.
The geometry of the complex is determined by the special arrangement of the groups which satisfy the secondary valence.

Secondary valence	Geometry
4	Tetrahedral / Square planar
6	Octahedral

Chlorine reacts with cold dilute alkali to give chloride and hypochlorite, while with hot concentrated alkali chlorides and chlorates are formed.
\(\mathrm{Cl}_{2}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \rightarrow \mathrm{HCl}+\underset{\text { Hypochlorous acid }}{\mathrm{HOCl}} \)
\(\mathrm{HCl}+\mathrm{NaOH} \rightarrow \mathrm{NaCl}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \)
\(\mathrm{HOCl}+\mathrm{NaOH} \rightarrow \mathrm{NaOCl}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \)
                   (Sodium hypo chlorite)
Overall Reaction
3Cl₂ + 6NaOH \(\rightarrow\) NaClO₃ + 5NaCl + 3H₂O
                             (Sodium Chlorate)

Allotropism:
1. Some elements exist in more than one crystalline or molecular forms in the same physical state
(a) In Greek "allos" means ⇒ Another
(b) "trope" means ⇒ Change
2. The different forms of an element are called allotropes.
Allotropy of carbon:
Carbon exists as diamond, graphite, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes and graphene.
Graphite:
1. Graphite is the most stable allotropic form of carbon at normal temperature and pressure.
2. It is soft and conducts electricity.
3. It is composed of flat two dimensional sheets of carbon atoms.
4. Each sheet is a hexagonal.
5. It is "sp²" hybridised.
6. C-C bond length is 1.41 Å
7. Each C-atom forms three σ bonds with three neighbouring carbon atoms using three of its valence electrons and the fourth electron present in the unhybridised p-orbital form a π-bond.
8. The successive C-sheets are held together by weak Vander Waals forces.
9 The distance successive sheet is 3.40 Å.
10. It is used as a lubricant either on its own or as a graphited oil.

Diamond:
1. It is very hard.
2. It is "sp³" hybridised.
3. C-C bond length is 1.54 Å
4. It is used for sharpening hard tools, cutting glasses, making bores and rock drilling.

Fullerenes:
1. These allotropes are discrete molecules such as \(C_{32}, C_{50}, C_{60}, C_{70}, C_{76}\) etc.
2. It has cage like structure
3. The C₆₀ molecules have a "soccer" ball like structure and is called buckminster fullerene or buckyballs.
4. It has a fused ring structure consists of 20 six membered rings and 12 five membered ring.
5. Each carbon atom is "sp²" hybridised.
6. It has three σ bonds and a delocalised π bond giving aromatic character to these molecules.
7. The C-C bond distance is 1.44 Å
8. The C=C bond distance is 1.38 Å.

Carbon nanotubes:
1. Carbon nanotubes, another recently discovered allotropes, have graphite like tubes with fullerene ends.
2. Along the axis, these nanotubes are stronger than steel and conduct electricity.
3. These have many applications in nanoscale electronics, catalysis, polymers and medicine.
Graphene:
 It has a single planar sheet of "sp²" hybridised carbon atoms that are densely packed in a "honeycomb crystal" lattice.

Zone refining :
1. Zone refining method is based on the principles of fractional crystallisation.
2. When an impure metal is melted and allowed to solidify, the impurities will prefer to be in the molten region. In this process the impure metal is taken in the form of a rod.
3. One end of the rod is heated using a mobile induction heater which results in melting of the metal on that portion of the rod.
4. When the heater is slowly moved to the other end the pure metal crystallises while the impurities will move on to the adjacent molten zone.
5. As the heater moves further away, the molten zone containing impurities also moves along with it.
6. The process is repeated several times by moving the heater in the same direction again and again to get pure metal.
7. This process is carried out in an inert gas atmosphere to prevent the oxidation of metals.
8. Elements such as germanium (Ge), silicon (Si) and galium (Ga) that are used as semiconductor are refined using this process.

(i) Purification of drinking water is activated by coagulation of suspended impurities in water by using alums containing \(\mathrm{Al}^{3+}\left(\mathrm{K}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4} \mathrm{Al}_{2}\left(\mathrm{SO}_{4}\right)_{3} \cdot 24 \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}\right)\) Alum has a negative charge and tends to disperse in water very fast.
(ii) The increased size as well as the lack of repelling charges cause the alum particles to settle down at the bottom or rise up and float in water. After the particles are neutralized, they clump together because of the London dispersive force which are part of vander Waal's forces. The weak inter molecular force arising from quantum induced instantaneous polarisation multi poles in molecules causes even non polar particles to attract each other due to the corelated movements of the electrons in interacting molecules. Then they settle down.

In this reaction, phenol is first converted into sodium phenoxide which is more reactive than phenol towards electrophilic substitution reaction with CO₂, Treatment of sodium phenoxide with CO₂ at 400 K, 4-7 bar pressure followed by acid hydrolysis gives salicylic acid.

First law:
The mass of the substance (m) liberated at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of charge (Q) passed through the cell.
m α Q \(\left[\because \mathrm{I}=\frac{\mathrm{Q}}{\mathrm{t}} \Rightarrow \mathrm{Q}=\mathrm{It}\right]\)
m α It
m = ZIt
Where Z = electro chemical equivalent of the substance
I = current
t = time of passage of current
Second law:
When the same quantity of charge is passed through the solutions of different electrolytes, the amount of substances liberated at the respective electrodes are directly proportional to their electrochemical equivalents.
m α Z
\(\frac{m_{1}}{Z_{1}}=\frac{m_{2}}{Z_{2}}\)
m = mass of the metal deposited
Z = electro chemical equivalent

(i) Natural rubber is mixed with 3-5% sulphur and heated at 100-150°C causes cross-linking of the cis-1,4-polyisoprene chains through disulphide (-S-S-) bonds.
(ii) The physical properties of rubber can be altered by controlling the amount of sulphur that is used for vulcanization.
(iii) In sulphur rubber, made with about 1 to 3% sulphur is soft and stretchy.When 3 to 10% sulphur is used the resultant rubber is somewhat harder but flexible.

i) Reducing sugars:
1. Sugars which reduce Tollen's reagent or Fehling's solution or Benedict's solution are called reducing sugars.
2. These contain either α - hydroxyl ketone or cyclical hemi acetal or hemi ketal or structures in equilibrium with open chain forms having a free- CHO or C=O group.
3. E.g. a) All monosaccharide's like D - glucose, D - fructose (aldoses and ketoses)
b) Sugars like Lactose and maltose except sucrose.
ii) Non - reducing sugars:
1. Sugars which do not reduce either Tollen's reagent, Fehling's solution or Benedict's solution are called non-reducing sugars.
2. They contain a stable acetal or ketal structures which cannot be opened into a free carbonyl group.
E.g. Sucrose, starch, cellulose, glycogen, dextrin etc.

Rate law:
(i) Rate law or rate equation is an expression which relates the rate of a reaction with rate constant and the concentration of reactants.
(ii) For xA + yB → products
(iii) The rate law is r = k[A]^m[B]ⁿ
Rate constant:
(i) It is the rate of the reaction when the concentration of the reactants are taken unity.
In above rate law if[A] = [B] = 1, rate constant k = Rate

(i) Fe³⁺ - electronic configuration - [Ar] 3d⁵
(ii) It has exactly half-filled stable electronic configuration.
(iii) Fe²⁺ - electronic configuration -[Ar]3d⁶
(iv) It has only partially filled d-orbitals.
Hence Fe³⁺ is more stable than Fe²⁺.

There are seven types of unit cell, Cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, hexagonal, monoclinic, triclinic and rhombohedral. They differ in the arrangement of their crystallographic axes and angles.
i) Cubic: a = b = c; α = β = ૪ = 90^o.

ii) Tetragonal: a = b ≠ c; α = β = ૪ = 90°.

iii) Orthorhombic:  a  ≠ b  ≠ c; α = β = ૪ = 90°.

iv) Hexagonal: a = b ≠ c; α = β = 90^o, ૪ = 120^o. 

v) Monoclinic: a ≠ b ≠ c; α = ૪ = 90^o, β ≠ 90^o, 

vi) Triclinic: a ≠ b ≠ c; α  ≠ β ≠ ૪ ≠ 90^o.

vii) Rhombohedral:  a = b = c; α = β = ૪ ≠ 90^o. 

(i) Helium is used to provide inert atmosphere in electric-arc welding of metals.
(ii) Helium has lowest boiling point hence used in cryogenics.
(iii) It is much less denser than air and hence used for filling air balloons.

(i) Borax is used for the identification of coloured metal ions.
(ii) In the manufacture optical and borosilicate glass, enamels and glazes for pottery.
(iii) It is also used as a flux in metallurgy.
(iv) It acts as a good preservative.

(a) Blood is a colloidal sol. When we rub the injured part with moist alum, coagulation of blood takes place.
(b) Coagulation stops bleeding. Moist alum is an electrolyte.

(i) Anode: The electrode at which the oxidation occurs is called anode. (loss of electrons)
(ii) Cathode: The electrode at which the reduction occurs is called cathode. (gain of electrons)

An alcohol:

An alkylhalide:

An alkene:

(i) Many micro organisms (bacteria, fungi and moulds) produce certain chemicals which inhibit the growth or metabolism of some other micro organism. Such chemicals are called antibiotics.
(ii) Eg: Penicillin from the mould penicillium notatum

i) Rickets - Vitamin - D (Cholecalciferol - (D₃) Ergocalciferol - (D₂)
ii) Scurvy (bleeding gums) - vitamin - C (Ascorbic acid)

(i) Lewis acid: It is a species that accepts an electron pair. Eg: \(\mathrm{Ag}^{+} ; \mathrm{BF}_{3} ; \mathrm{A} / \mathrm{Cl}_{3}\)
(ii) Lewis base: It is a species that donates an electron pair. Eg: \( \mathrm{Cl}^{-} ; \mathrm{NH}_{3} ; \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}\)

The fourteen elements following actinoids is from thorium to lawrencium are called actinides.
Examples: Uranium, Thorium, Neptunium

a) potassiumhexacyanidoferrate(II) - Potassiumhexacyanidoferrate(II) - K₄[Fe(CN)₆]
b) Pentacarbonyliron(0) - [Fe(CO)₅]
c) Pentaamminenitrito −kNcobalt(III)ion - [Co(NH₃)₅(NO₂)]²⁺
d) Hexaamminecobalt(III) Sulphate  - [CO(NH₃)₆](SO₄)₃
e) Sodiumtetrafluoridodihydroxidochromate(III)  - Na₂[CrF₄(OH)₂]

(i) A basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid is called a unit cell.
(ii) A crystal is consisted of large number of unit cells.

(i) In diborane two BH₂ units are linked by two bridged hydrogens.
(ii) It has eight B-H bonds.
(iii) Diborane has only 12 valance electrons.
(iv) The four terminal B-H- bonds is "2c - 2e" bond (two centre - two electron bond.)
(v) Two three centred B - H - B bonds two electrons each. "(3c - 2e)"
(vi) In diborane, the boron is "sp³" hybridised
(vii) Three of the four "sp³" hydridised orbitals contains single electron and the fourth orbital is empty.

(i) In heavier post transition metals, the outers electrons (ns) have a tendency to remain inert and show reluctance to take part in the bonding, which is known as inert pair effect.
(ii) This effect is also observed in groups 14, 15 and 16.