i) Secularism means an attitude of tolerance towards other religions and peaceful co-existence of citizens belonging to different faiths.
ii) It is a policy of neutrality and equality by the states towards all religious communities.

i) Rajaram Mohan Roy
ii) Rabindranath Tagore
iii) B.R. Ambedkar
iv) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and
v) Mahatma Gandhi

i) Tokyo - (Japan)
ii) Delhi - (India)
iii) Shanghai - (China)
iv) Mexico City  - (Mexico)

Urbanisation refers to the process in which there is an increase in the proportion of population living in towns and cities.

i) Natural population growth
ii) Rural to urban migration and the reclassification of rural areas into urban areas.

Migration is defined as the permanent semi permanent change of residence of an individual or group of people over a significant distance.

(i) Reduce tropical deforestation and its associated global warming emissions. Plant more frees
(ii) Reduce waste by choosing reusable products instead of disposables. Recycle paper plastic, glass and aluminium cans.
(iii) Expand the use of renewable energy and transform our energy system to one that is cleaner and less dependent on coal and other fossil fuels
(iv) Increase vehicle fuel efficiency and support other solutions that reduce U.S oil use.
(v) Build a clean energy economy by investing in efficient energy technologies, industries and approaches.
(vi) Use energy-efficient lights, heating, ventilation, A.C. set them to energy conservation levels.

i) Acquiring citizenship by birth.
ii) Acquiring citizenship by descent.
iii) Acquiring citizenship by Registration.
iv) Acquiring citizenship by Naturalisation.
v) Acquiring citizenship by incorporation of Territory

a) Loyalty to the constitution.
b) Obeys laws
c) Respecting diversity

i) Natural Citizens: They are the citizens by birth
ii) Naturalised citizens: They are the one who acquires citizenship.

(i) Hydrological cycle is a global sun. driven process where water is transported from oceans to atmosphere, from atmosphere to land and from land back to oceans.
(ii) The water cycle can be considered as a closed system for the earth, as the quantity of water involved in the cycle is invariable.

i) An aquifer is an underground layer of water - bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand or silt).
ii) Ground water can be extracted using a water well.
iii) The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology.

Soils are classified on the basis of their formation colour, physical and chemical properties. Soil is classified into six major types. They are
1. Alluvial soil
2. Black soil
3. Red soil
4. Laterite soil
5. Mountain soil
6. Desert soil

1. The igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma.
2. These rocks are also called as the 'Primary Rocks' or 'Parent Rocks' as all other rocks are formed from these rocks.

i) To remove narrow mindedness and make dynamic and enlightened view.
ii) To develop moral and humanistic outlook.
iii) To train the youth to be good citizen.
iv) To strengthen democratic values like liberty, equality and fraternity and co-operative living
v) To give wider vision towards life.
vi) To develop an attitude of appreciation and understanding of others point of view.
vii) To develop the spirit of love, tolerance, co-operation, equality and sympathy.
viii) To synthesise materialism and spiritualism.

Renunciation : (a voluntary act)
when a person after acquiring the citizenship of another country gives up his/ her Indian citizenship.
Termination : (by operation of Law)
When an Indian citizen voluntarily acquires the citizenship of another country he/ she automatically ceases to be an Indian citizen. 
Deprivation : (Compulsary Termination)
The citizenship is deprived on the basis of an order of the government of India in case involving acquisition of India citizenship by fraud, false representation or being disloyal to the constitution.

The horizontal movement of air is called wind.
The winds move from high pressure to low pressure.
Winds get their name from the direction from which they blow i.e, wind blows from south west is called southwest monsoon.
The wind systems are broadly categorized into three as follows.
i) Planetary winds
ii) Seasonal winds
iii) Local winds
Planetary winds:
These Winds are the ones which blow almost in the same direction throughout the year. So, they are called as Permanent or planetary winds.
Eg: Trade winds, Westerlies and polar easterlies.
Seasonal winds:
Seasonal winds are those which change their direction according to season in a year.
They are called as monsoon winds.
These winds blow from sea to land during summer and land to sea during winter.
Local winds:
These winds are the winds blow over a small area only during a particular time of a day or a short period of a year.
Eg: Land breeze and sea breeze.

1. The temperature of a unit volume of air at a given time is measured in scales like Celsius, Fahrenheit,
2. Meteorologist measures the temperature by the Thermometer, Stevenson screen and minimum and maximum Thermometer.
3. Atmosphere is mainly heated by outgoing radiation from 2 to 4 pm.
4. So the maximum temperature is recorded between 2 and 4 pm regularly and minimum temperature is recorded around 4 am before sunrise.

According to the mode of formation the rocks are classified into three as follows
1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks:
1. The igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma.
2. These rocks are also called as the 'Primary Rocks' or 'Parent Rocks' as all other rocks are formed from these rocks.
3. Igneous rocks are of two types. They are
Extrusive Igneous Rocks.
Intrusive Igneous Rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks:
1. The sedimentary rocks are formed by the sediments derived and deposited by various agents.
2.Due to high temperature and pressure, the undistrubed sediments of long period cements to form sedimentary rocks.
3. These rocks consist of many layers which were formed by the sediments deposited at different periods. As it consists of many strata, it is also known as 'stratified rocks.
4. The three types of sedimentary rocks are
i) Organic Sedimentary Rocks
ii) Mechanical Sedimentary Rocks
iii) Chemical Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic Rocks:
When Igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to high temperature and pressure, the original rocks get altered to form a new kind of rock called metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphism is of two types
1. Thermal Metamorphism
2. Dynamic Metamorphism

(i) Soil is a mixture of organic matter, mineral, gases, liquids and organisms that together support life. Soil minerals form the basis of soil. It forms on surface of the earth. It is known as skin of earth.
(ii) Soils are produced form rocks through the processes of weathering and soil erosion.
(iii) Water, wind, temperature change, gravity, chemical interaction, living organisms and pressure differences all help break down parent material.
(iv) It leads to the formation of loose material
(v) In course of time they further break down into fine particles.
(vi) This process release the minerals locked in the rock fragments.
(vii) Later on the vegetative cover which develops in that region forms humus content in the soil. This way the soil gets matured gradually.

i) Isolines are those which join the places of equal values.
ii) Isolines are given different names based on the weather element they represent.

i) The weight of air above a given area on the earth's surface is called atmospheric pressure or air pressure.
ii) The air pressure is measured by Barometer.
iii) The standard air pressure at sea level is 1013.25 mb.

1. Weather is the day today conditions of the atmosphere at any place as regards sunshine, temperature, cloud cover, Wind fog condition, air pressure, humidity, precipitation and such other elements.
2. It refers to short periods like a day, a week, a month or a little longer.
3. Weather changes from time to time in a day and one period to the other in a year.
4. The weather is cool in winter and hot in summer.