Conservatism was adopted by the European governments after defeating Napoleon in 1815. They favoured it to preserve the established traditional institutions of state and society like monarchy, church, social hierarchies institutions of state and society like monarchy, church, social hierarchies, property and family. There were some who did not want to adopt the pre-revolutionary system, rather they favoured Napoleonic changes and wanted to adopt modernisation as it would rather contribute to strength traditional institutions and state power and make it much more effective. Conservatives began to believe that aristocratic monarchies if Europe too would be strengthen from a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the areas ruled by him
(i) He established the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code. This did away with all privileges based on birth. It established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(ii) He simplified administrative divisions. 
(iii) He abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(iv) In towns, guild systems were removed.
(v) Transport and communication systems were improved.
Due to the above measures, peasants, artisans, businessmen and workers enjoyed a new found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers realised that uniform laws, a common currency and standardised weights and measures would facilitate movement and exchange of goods between regions.

The French revolutionaries took the following steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French people
(i) They introduced the ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen(the citizen), emphasising the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution.
(ii) They chose a new French flag, the tricolour, to replace the royal standard.
(iii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(iv) In the name of the nation, new hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated.
(v) They established a centralised administrative system, which formulated uniform laws for all citizens.
(vi) They adopted a uniform system of weights and measures.
(vii) All internal custom duties were abolished.
(viii) They promoted the French language, as spoken and written in Paris and discouraged regional dialects.
(ix) They declared that it was the mission and destiny of the French nation to liberate people of Europe from despotism. It is meant that they would help other people of Europe to become nation-states like them.

(a) Giuseppe Mazzini He was an Italian revolutionary, who was born in Genoa in 1807. He was sent into exile at the age of 24 in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded underground societies named 'Young Italy' in Marseilles and 'Young Europe' in Berne whose members were like minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states. He believed that God had intended notions to be the natural units of mankind. He opposed monarchy and supported the vision of democratic Republic.
Following his ideas and on the model of his secret societies, more such societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Austrian Chancellor Duke Matternich once described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'.
(b) Count Camillo de Cavour He was the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. He was neither a democratic nor a revolutionary. But he led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. Through tact and diplomacy, he entered into an alliance with France and succeeded in defeating Austrian forces in 1859 and thereby freed the Northern part of Italy from the Austrian Habsburg.
(c) The Greek War of Independence
It was a successful war waged by Greek revolutionaries between 1821 to 1832 against the Ottoman Empire.
Greek nationalists were influenced by the idea of liberal nationalism.
They were supported by the West European countries in this war of independence.
Further, the poets and artists, who added romanticism to the Greek struggle of independence, participated in this war against the Ottoman empire.
With the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832, Greece was recognised as an independent nation.
(d) Frankfurt Parliament It is the name of the German National Assembly, founded during the Revolution of 1948 that tried to unite Germany in a democratic way. The assembly was attended by 831 deputies. The members had drafted the Constitution for a new German nation. The new Constituion was rejected by Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the king of Prussia.
Though the Frankfurt Parliament failed to unite Germany, it had consequences on Germany. The Parliament also faced strong opposition from the aristocracy and military as it was dominated by the middle-class who resisted the demands of workers and artisans. As result of this, the middle-class lost their mass support. Ultimately, the monarchy and military combined together with the aristocracy and won over the liberal nationalist middle-class.
This forced the assembly to disband. Therefore, the Frankfurt Parliament is famous in history as a failure of liberalism and a victory of the monarchy.
(e) The Role of Women in Nationalist Struggles
A large number of women had participated in liberal and national movements in European countries. They had formed their own political association, started newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Universal male suffrage was adopted in the country and the women were hoping for the voting right.
But when the Frankfurt Parliament was convened in Church of St Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visiter's gallery.

Language , music , drama , dance folklore etc

(i) Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) was a famous Italian freedom fighter.

(ii) In 1859, a large number of armed volunteers under his leadership helped to defeat the Austrian forces.

(iii) In 1860, they marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and drove out the Spanish rulers.

(iv) He supported Victor Emmanuel II who was declared as King of United Italy.

The German people did not exists as a united nation.  Men and women of middle classes combined their demands for constitution with national unification.  In 1848, the popular effort was failure to succeed in forming constitution (Frankfurt Parliament) in Germany due to the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.  Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification with its chief minister as Otto Von Bismarck.  He reached his goal with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
The process of unification was ended with three wars over 7 years with Austria Denmark and France.  In Jan 1871, an assembly consisting of the princes of German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German head as Kaiser William I of Prussia.  The new state placed a strong prominence on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial system in Germany.  Prussian measures and practices became a model for the rest of Germany.

The Frankfurt Parliament, which was convened in the church of St Paul on 18th May, 1848, was the first major step, towards the unification of german states. Otto von Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, carried out the process of unification with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy. The building process of Germany after 1848
(i) The liberal initiatives of nation building were repressed by the monarchy and big landlords of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took the initiative to unify Germany.
(ii) There were widespread nationalist feelings among middle-class Germans, who in 1848, tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a Nation-state.
(iii) Bismarck was convinced that the unification of Germany could be only achieved by the princes, not by the common people. He wanted to achieve his aim by merging Prussia into Germany. In 1867, Bismarck became the Chancellor of the North Confederation.
(iv) Bismarck's main objective was to unify Germany and was accomplished by three wars with Austria, Denmark and France which were fought in a brief period of seven years. These wars were ended with the victory of Prussia which helped in completing the process of German unification.
(v) On 18th January, 1871, in the Royal Palace of Versailles, the king of Prussia, Kaiser William I was crowned as the German Emperor. It symbolised the birth of a United Germany.

Plebiscite is a system of direct vote by which the people of a region. themselves decide to accept or reject a proposal.

The concept of a nation-state was one in which people and rulers of land came together to develop a sense of common identity and shared history.

A body of people who are united by same past, culture, political system and common interests can be defined as a Nation.

Unrestricted, despotic and authoritarian monarchial system of rule of rule or government is referred to as absolutism.

The Prussian King William I was proclaimed as German Emperor in 1871.

Giuseppe Garibaldi and King Victor Emmanuel II were the two architects of the Italian Nation.

The poor peasants who were bound to the vast estates of the aristocrats were called Serfs.

The national anthem of Britain was "God save our Noble King".

The female allegories were invented by the French artists to represent the nation.