The two ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in diverse organisms are listed below.
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration : It occurs in the presence of oxygen, respiration occurs, and the products are carbon dioxide, energy, and water.
Glucose + Oxygen \(\rightarrow\) Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
- \(\mathrm{C}_6 \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_6(\mathrm{l})+6 \mathrm{O}_2(\mathrm{~g}) \rightarrow 6 \mathrm{CO}_2(\mathrm{~g})+6 \mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{O}(\mathrm{l})+\) Energy
Anaerobic respiration - It occurs in the absence of oxygen, respiration occurs, and the products generated are lactic acid or ethanol and energy.
Glucose \(\rightarrow\) Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
Glucose \(\rightarrow\) Lactic acid + Energy
- \(\mathrm{C}_6 \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_6(\mathrm{l}) \rightarrow 2 \mathrm{C}_3 \mathrm{H}_6 \mathrm{O}_3(\mathrm{l})+\) Energy

Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration:

Water and minerals are transported through xylem in plants. The cells in roots that are in contact wih soil actively take up ions. creating a difference in conentration of ions between the cell sap of roots and soil water.
Water moves into the roots to eliminate this diference of concentration forming a steady movement of water in the root xylem. This creates a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards. Loss of water from leaves creates a suction that pulls water from the xylem of the roots to the aerial parts of the body.

Structure of nephron Nephron is the basic filtering unit found in kidney. It is a long coiled tubule whose one end is connected to the double walled cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule and the other end to a urine collecting duct. Bowiman's capsule contains a bundle of blood capillaries, known as glomerulus that is followed by the tubular part of nephron, which forms loops at some places. For figure refer to "Structure of a nephron" on.
Functioning of nephron
(i) Glomerulus filters the blood passing through it.
(ii) It also ensures to remove only harmful substances from the body that includes nitrogenous materials.
(iii) The useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water are selectively reabsorbed by the tubular part of nephron.
(iv) Some substances like K⁺ are actively secreted into the urine through the tubule.
(v) The collecting duct collects the urine and passes it to the ureter.

During double circulation in human beings, blood passes the through heart twice for completing one cycle of circulation.
The double circulation includes the following processes
(i) Pulmonary circulation In this circulation, the deoxygenated blood is pushed by right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation through pulmonary artery. This oxygenated blood is then brought back to the left atrium of the heart through pulmonary veins.
(ii) Systemic circulation In this circulation, oxygenated blood brought to left atrium goes to the left ventricle. It is then passed on to different body parts of body through aorta.
Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body. This is usefull in animals that have high energy needs, such as birds and mammals, which constantly, use energy to maintain their body temperature.

(i) Take a leaf and fold it to remove the lower surface peel with the forceps.
(ii) Keep the peel in a watch glass containing dilute safranin for staining.
(iii) Place the leaf on clean glass slide, add a drop of glycerin and gently place a cover slip over it.
(iv) Remove the extra stain with the blotting paper and observe it under a microscope.

Transpiration is loss of water from stomatal pores. It regulates the temperature and also causes the suction pull due to which upward movement of water and minerals take place.

Breathing is the process of taking in oxygen (inhalation) and giving out carbon dioxide (exhalation)

(i)Protein
(ii)Starch
(iii)Protein
(iv)Fats

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) produced during respiration in living organisms and also during photosynthesis in plants.

(i)Leaves provide large surface area for maximum light absorption
(ii)Leaves are arranged at right angles to the light source in a way that causes overlapping
(iii)The extensive network of veins enables quick transport of substances to and from the mesophyll cells.
(iv)Presence of numerous stomata for gaseous exchange.
(v)The chloroplasts are more in number on the upper surface of leaves.

An autograph is an organism which prepares its own food, while a heterotroph takes food from another organism. Autotrophs do not show locomotion because they don't need to move in search of food. On the other hand, most of the heterotrophs show locomotion because they need to move in search of food.

Three types of blood vessels are:
1. Arteries - Arteries carry the oxygenated blood away from the heart to the various organs of the body.
2. Veins - Veins carry deoxygenated blood from different organs of the body back to the heart.
3. Capillaries - Capillaries are the smallest vessels where exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells takes place.

The cartilaginous diaphragm when contracts, increases the surface area for lungs which spreads thereby reducing the air pressure in it. The pressure of air at the nostrils is more and hence the air flows from higher pressure area to lower pressure area i.e. lungs. This is called inhalation.

When the diaphragm relaxes, it pushes the lungs thereby increasing the pressure on them and the surface area reduces and hence the pressure of air in the lungs is more which is forced/given out from the nostrils. This is called exhalation.

Mammals and birds are warm-blooded animals, so they constantly need energy in order to maintain their body temperature. Due to this high energy demand, they require more oxygen. Thus, it is important that their Oxygenated blood should not get mixed up with deoxygenated blood in order to make circulatory system much more efficient.

The different constituents of blood are plasma (the fluid part of the bloo(d) and blood corpuscles consisting of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets)
WBCs are known as the soldiers of the body because they fight against the pathogenes that invade our body, thus preventing the occurence of diseases.

(i)The glottis is gaurded by epiglottis because it prevents the entry of food in wind pipe. If the food enters wind pipe, then it chokes it, leading to the death of the person.
(ii)The lung alveoli are covered with blood vessels because the oxygen that we inhale dissolves in the blood, present in these blood capillaries only, as it reaches the lungs.
(iii)The wall of trachea is supported by cartilage rings because these rings prevent the air passage from collapsing.