After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and revolution, Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans. Middle class German tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. However, liberal initiative to nation-building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by toe large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia. Prussia with its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck took on the leadership of the movement for national unification with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Prussia emerged victorious after fighting three wars over seven years against the combined forces of Austria, Denmark and France and the process of unification of Germany was completed. In January 1871, the Prussian king, Kaiser William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles. The nation -building process in Germany had demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state power. The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation.  It includes Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Bosnia, Croatia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.  The people of this region were called Slavs.  A large part of the Balkans was under the control of Ottoman Empire.  In 19th century it was collapsed.  There were revolts by various nationalities for independence.  The imperial powers of Europe competed with one another to extend control over Balkan region because of its strategic position.  Due to this there arouse an intense rivalry among the powers.  The people of Balkan regions were separated from each other due to the domination of other powers.  The spread of nationalist ideas among Slavs, made this region very explosive.  Balkan area thus became an area of intense conflict leading to wars resulting to wars resulting in the First World War [1914].

Nationalist tension emerged in the Balkans because the Balkan states were aspiring for nationalism. The Balkans was a region comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their inhabitants were called Slavs. In 19th century, the major portion of the Balkans was under the Ottoman Empire.
The ideas of romantic nationalism developed in the Balkans. The rebellions nationalities in the Balkans thought that their struggle was the attempt to win back their long-lost independence.

The growth of nationalism did not come only through wars but also through the different forms of culture such as art, poetry, dance, music tic contributed to the growth of nationalism. The following three examples will show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe: -
Example 1 - Romanticism - It is a cultural movement which developed nationalist sentiment through creative works like painting, poetry, literature, folk songs, dances etc. It focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. They aimed to create a sense of collective heritage as the basis of a nation.
Example 2 - Emphasis on Vernacular Language - It carried the modern nationalist message to people who were illiterate. Though Poland is no longer existed as an independent nation, national feelings were kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through music, folk dances into nationalist symbols.
Example 3 - Johann Gottfried Herder - According to him, German culture was inculcated to the common people through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the nation - building.

Romanticism referred to a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of national sentiment in the following ways
1. Romantic artist and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science.
2. They focussed on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings
3. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.
4. Some German romantics like Johann Gottfried Herder thought that through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dance, the true spirit of the nation could, be popularised. He claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people.

Examples of contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe are
(i) The idea of a nation can be created through stories, poems and writings. Music too can help in expressing nationalist feelings or sentiments. Collecting and recording the different forms of folk culture was important for building a national consciousness. Being a part of the lives of the common people, folk culture enabled nationalist to carry the message of nationalism to a large and diverse audience. For example, Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music turning Folk dances like the Polonaise and Mazurka into nationalist symbol.
(ii) Romanticism, a cultural movement which emerged in Europe, sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiments or national feelings. The main aim of Romantic artists was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage and a common cultural past.
(iii) Language also played an important role in developing the national sentiments or nationalist feeling. For example, in Poland, language began to be used as a weapon of national resistance. The wide scale use of Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against national dominance.

The 1848 revolution is a revolution led by the educated middle classes of Europe.  The liberals supported political, social and economic ideas.
Political, Social and Economic Ideas supported by the Liberals
(a) Politically it stressed on the concept of representative government based on the approval of the people.
(b) Liberalism ended the autocracy and clerical privileges and encouraged supremacy of the people.
(c) Socially, it stressed equality of all before law and individual freedom.
(d) Economically it stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restriction on the goods and capital and inviolability of private property.

The 1848 revolution is a revolution led by the educated middle classes of Europe.  The liberals supported political, social and economic ideas.
Political, Social and Economic Ideas supported by the Liberals
(a) Politically it stressed on the concept of representative government based on the approval of the people.
(b) Liberalism ended the autocracy and clerical privileges and encouraged supremacy of the people.
(c) Socially, it stressed equality of all before law and individual freedom.
(d) Economically it stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restriction on the goods and capital and inviolability of private property.

By the 1848 Revolution of the Liberals, we mean, the revolution led by the educated middle classes of Europe. Events of February 1848, in France, brought about the abdication of the monarchy and a republic based on universal male franchise was formed.
The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals in 19th century were
(i) Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent, abolition of autocracy and special privileges.
(ii) Socially, the liberals supported the abolition of discrimination based on birth.
(iii) Economically, it stood for the abolition of trade restrictions imposed by the state.

(a) The idea of a fatherland among the citizens laid stress on the enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(b) Choosing a new French flag, the tricolour replacing the former royal standard.
(c) The Estate General was elected by the active citizens.
(d) The Estate General was renamed as National Assembly.
(e) New hymns were composed, oaths takes in the name of the nation.
(f) A centralized administrative system was set up to produce uniform laws for all the citizens within its territory.
(g) Internal customs and duties were abolished.
(h) New system of weight and measures were adopted.
(i) Regional dialects were discouraged.
(j) French was spoken and written in Paris.
(k) French became the common language of the nation.

(a) The idea of a fatherland among the citizens laid stress on the enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(b) Choosing a new French flag, the tricolour replacing the former royal standard.
(c) The Estate General was elected by the active citizens.
(d) The Estate General was renamed as National Assembly.
(e) New hymns were composed, oaths takes in the name of the nation.
(f) A centralized administrative system was set up to produce uniform laws for all the citizens within its territory.
(g) Internal customs and duties were abolished.
(h) New system of weight and measures were adopted.
(i) Regional dialects were discouraged.
(j) French was spoken and written in Paris.
(k) French became the common language of the nation.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:-
(a) The Civil Code introduced by him in 1804 abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(b) He divided the administrative divisions.
(c) He abolished the feudal system and free peasants from serfdom and dues.
(d) He removed guild restrictions in the towns.
(e) He improved transport and communication systems.
(f) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given freedom.
(g) he introduced uniform laws, standardised weight and measures.
(h) He introduced a common national currency.
(i) His code was applicable to regions under French control to create a feeling of oneness among all people of the French empire.

Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him:-
(a) The Civil Code introduced by him in 1804 abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property.
(b) He divided the administrative divisions.
(c) He abolished the feudal system and free peasants from serfdom and dues.
(d) He removed guild restrictions in the towns.
(e) He improved transport and communication systems.
(f) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given freedom.
(g) he introduced uniform laws, standardised weight and measures.
(h) He introduced a common national currency.
(i) His code was applicable to regions under French control to create a feeling of oneness among all people of the French empire.

The German people did not exists as a united nation.  Men and women of middle classes combined their demands for constitution with national unification.  In 1848, the popular effort was failure to succeed in forming constitution (Frankfurt Parliament) in Germany due to the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (Junkers) of Prussia.  Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification with its chief minister as Otto Von Bismarck.  He reached his goal with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
The process of unification was ended with three wars over 7 years with Austria Denmark and France.  In Jan 1871, an assembly consisting of the princes of German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to proclaim the new German head as Kaiser William I of Prussia.  The new state placed a strong prominence on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial system in Germany.  Prussian measures and practices became a model for the rest of Germany.

The Frankfurt Parliament, which was convened in the church of St Paul on 18th May, 1848, was the first major step, towards the unification of german states. Otto von Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, carried out the process of unification with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy. The building process of Germany after 1848
(i) The liberal initiatives of nation building were repressed by the monarchy and big landlords of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took the initiative to unify Germany.
(ii) There were widespread nationalist feelings among middle-class Germans, who in 1848, tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a Nation-state.
(iii) Bismarck was convinced that the unification of Germany could be only achieved by the princes, not by the common people. He wanted to achieve his aim by merging Prussia into Germany. In 1867, Bismarck became the Chancellor of the North Confederation.
(iv) Bismarck's main objective was to unify Germany and was accomplished by three wars with Austria, Denmark and France which were fought in a brief period of seven years. These wars were ended with the victory of Prussia which helped in completing the process of German unification.
(v) On 18th January, 1871, in the Royal Palace of Versailles, the king of Prussia, Kaiser William I was crowned as the German Emperor. It symbolised the birth of a United Germany.

The two nation-states that had adopted a national flag for their respective nations by 1848 were Switzerland.

The factor that provided unity among the diverse regions within the Habsburg Empire, in the absence of nation-states was their shared loyalty to the emperor as there was no collective identity or common culture binding the territories. Their political unity originated from their loyalty to a common monarch, and the absence of centralised nation-states meant that each region retained a significant degree of autonomy.

The fundamental shift which occurred after the French Revolution was the monarchy surrendering authority to the French people. It established that people, rather than the monarchy, would constitute the nation and have the power to define its path and governance, marking a significant transition in the political landscape of France. 

The rise of nationalism in the 19th century fundamentally changed Europe's political and intellectual landscape. It resulted in the redrawing of borders, the development of nation-states and the emergence of a collective consciousness among people, impacting their views and mindsets about identity and belonging.

The French artist Frederic Sorrieu prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a new world. 

1. A person is identified by his language and traditional practices because the language that he speaks belongs to a nation, his motherland. It is the nation which is important than the individual.
2. Also the language and traditional practices of a land or territory develop in a long time, thus get firmly established.
3. People are born and die but language and traditions stay. They are always alive.
4. They give an identity to an Individual wherever he goes.
5. Therefore, the language and popular traditions are important in creating the national identity of an Individual.