Phan Boi Chau (1867-1940): He was a nationalist who was educated in the Confucian tradition. He formed the Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903; with Prince Cuong De as the head. Phan Boi Chau met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao (1873 - 1929) in Yokohama in 1905. 'The History of the Loss of Vietnam' was the most influential book written by Phan. It was written under the strong influence and advice of Qichao. The book focuses mainly on two issues, viz. the loss of sovereignty and severing of ties with China. Phan became one of the leading figures of the anti-colonial movement in Vietnam.
Phan Chu Trinh (187l-1926): He strongly differed with Phan Boi Chau. He was hostile to the monarchy and opposed the idea of resisting French with the help of court. He was highly influenced by the democratic ideals of the west. He accepted the French ideals of liberty. He wanted the French to set up legal and educational institutions, and develop agriculture and industries. The objectives of the two nationalists, Phan Chu Trinh and Ph an Boi Chau, were different from each other. Phan Chu Trinh (1871 - 1926) did not want to resist the French with the aid of monarchy. He was influenced by the Western idea of democracy and wanted to set up a democratic republic of Vietnam. Phan Boi Chau (1867 - 1940) went on to form a revolutionary society with Prince Cuong De. So we can say that Ph an Boi Chau favoured monarchy and Phan Chu Trinh favoured a republic.

The following were the contributions made by the French for the development of agriculture in Vietnam:
(a) Vast irrigation system like canals and earthworks were built along with land drained in the Mekong delta to increase cultivation.
(b) Jute production was introduced to reduce dependency on rice cultivation.
(c) Various land reforms were carried out to increase productivity and reduce rural poverty.

The development programmes undertaken by the French indirectly helped the Vietnamese people in the following ways.
(a) Development works like canal construction provided employment to many people.
(b) With the increased agricultural production, farmers got surplus output to export.
(c) Education brought modern ideas to Vietnam.
(d) Standard of living of the people improved.

Religion had always played a pivotal role in the lives of people in Vietnam. This fact was used well by the imperialists to aid in their control over the colonies. Thinking this, the imperialists imposed their religion on the Vietnamese locals. Thus anti-imperialist feelings arose in Vietnam against the French imperialist forces. Vietnam followed Buddhism and Confucianism. The French wanted to convert the Vietnamese to Christianity. The Scholars Revolt (1868): It took place as a movement against the spread of Christianity and French power. This revolt was led by the officials at the imperial court. The Vietnamese led a general uprising in the provinces ofNgu and Ha Tein and over a thousand Catholics missionaries were killed. This inspired other patriots to rise against the French government. The revolt was finally suppressed by the French.
Hoa Hoa Movement (1939): It began in 1939 and gained great popularity in the fertile Mekong delta area. It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the nineteenth century. The founder of Hoa Hao was a man called Huynh Phu So. He performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure had a wide appeal. He also opposed the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium. The French tried to suppress the movement inspired by Huynh Phu So. They declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze, and put him in a mental asylum. But the doctor, who had to prove him mad, became his follower. Finally, he was exiled to Laos and many of his followers were sent to concentration camps.

Syncretism aims at bringing together different beliefs and practices.  It sees mainly the unity not their differences.  A variety of syncretic tradition combined Buddhism and local beliefs.

(i) Confucius, a Chinese thinker, developed a philosophical system based on good conduct, practical wisdom and proper social relationships.

(ii) People were taught to respect their parents and submit to elders. They were told the relationship between the ruler and the people was the same as that between children and parents.

(i) The trail symbolises how the Vietnamese used their limited resources to great advantage.
(ii) The trail, an immense network of footpaths and roads was used to transport men and material from North to South.
(iii) It was improved in late1950s and from 1967 about 20,000 North Vietnamese troops came south each month.  The trail had support bases and hospitals along the way.
(iv) Mostly supplies were carried by women porters on their backs or on their bicycles.
(v) The U.S. regularly bo0mbed this trail to disrupt supplies but efforts to destroy this important supply line by intensive bombing failed because they were rebuilt very quickly.

for increasing cultivation, the French began to build canals to irrigate the land in the Mekong delta.  This helped in increasing rice production.  The area under rice cultivation went up from 274,000 hectares in 1873 to 1.1 million hectares in 1900 and 2.2 million in 1930.  Vietnam exported two-thirds of its rice production and by 1931 had become the thrid largest exporter of rice the world.  After that, the French began to work one infrastructure projects.  This was necessary for transportation of goods for trade and also for moving military garrisons in the entire region.  Construction of a trans-Indo-China rail network began in this period and the final link with Yunnan in China was completed by 1910.  The second line was built to link Vietnam to Siam (early name of Thailand).

He was hostile to the monarchy and opposed the idea of resisting French with the help of court.  He was highly influenced by the democratic ideals of the west.  He accepted the French ideals of liberty.  He wanted the French to set up legal and educational institution, and develop agriculture and industries.

(i) While teaching, Vietnamese teachers quietly modified the text and criticised what was stated.  When a Vietnamese girl was refused a seat with font row of the class and expelled from school a major protest erupted in the Saigon Natives Girls School in 1926.

(ii) Elsewhere students fought against the colonial government's efforts to prevent the Vietnamese from qualifying for white-collar jobs.

(iii) Students formed political parties like party of young Annan and published nationalist journals such as the Annamese Student. Thus schools became an important place for political and cultural battles.

The ideas behind the Tonkin Free School were predominantly based on policies of westernization.  Students were taught science, hygiene and French, and were encouraged to adopt Western styles of dressing.  This school was a typical example of colonial ideas in Vietnam on account of the aforementioned.  It rejected traditional Vietnamese education and lifestyle, and promoted western ideals and living.

(a) The "civilising mission" of the colonisers was an imperial disguise for controlling colonies. European powers assumed that their civilisation was the most advanced, and that it was their humanitarian concern to spread it around the world, even if this was done by force. Europeans became the self-professed carriers of light to the colonies, rejecting the latter's inherent traditions, religions and cultures as outdated. Also, education was viewed as a "civilising" tool, but fearing retaliation, the colonisers-the French in Vietnam, the British in India, did not want to give full access to the colonised people to Western education. They were aware that Western education might instill democratic ideals and a desire for independence. Hence, the "civilising mission" was marred by double standards and sheer hypocrisy.
(b) Huynh Phu So was a revolutionary leader who started an anti-French movement known as the Hoa Hoa. He was declared the "Mad Bonze" and put in a mental asylum by the French. He performed miracles and helped the poor; condemning unnecessary expenses, gambling, intoxication and the sale of child brides. Interestingly, he was declared sane in 1941, but was exiled to Laos after the doctor treating him also became his follower.

Effect of the War on Vietnam:
(i) US entry into the war proved costly to the Vietnamese as well as to Americans. The phase of struggle with the US was brutal.
(ii) From 1965-1972, many (over 403100) US personnel served in Vietnam out of which 7484 were women. Many died in battle and a large number of people were wounded.
(iii) Thousands of US troops arrived equipped with heavy weapons and tanks backed by most powerful bombers of the time-B52s. The widespread attacks and use of chemical weapons-Napalm, Agent Orange and Phosphorous bombs destroyed many villages and decimated jungles. Civilians died in large numbers.
Effect of the US involvement on life within the US:
(i) Most of the people were critical of the government's policy of war. When the youths were drafted (forced recruitment) for the war, the anger grew.
(ii) Compulsory service in the armed forces could be waived only for university graduates. The meant many of those sent to fight did not belong to the privileged elite, but were minorities and children of working class families which created a lot of resentment.
(iii) US media played a major role in both supporting and criticising the war. Hollywood made films in support of the war. (Example: John Wayne's Green Berets 1968). The film was taken as a war propaganda film, responsible for motivating many young men to die in the war. Other films were more critical. (Example: John Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now 1979 reflected the moral confusion that the war cause in the US).

The Entry of the US into the War (1965-1972) : The US was apprehensive that establishment of a communist regime would spark a chain reaction which could lead to formation of similar regimes in the surrounding parts of the world. In order to stop the spread of communism, the US attacked Vietnam. The US occupation of Vietnam involved use of a high number of services personnel and also the use of latest warfare. In spite of advanced technology and good medical supplies, the US casualties were very high in Vietnam. Even the most powerful bombers of the time, the B52s were used in the battle. About 47,000 US soldiers died and 303,000 were wounded. About 23,000 suffered 100% disability. The struggle of the Vietnamese people against the US showed that the inspiration of saving the motherland can turn even the weak into a great battle force. The US probably underestimated this factor. Effect on US : Most of the people in the US were highly critical of the US involvement in Vietnam. Many contemporary thinkers were of the opinion that the US should not have involved itself in a war was impossible to win.