In the first print the artist shows the people of Europe and America-men and women of all ages and social classes-marking in a long trian offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it. At that time after, French Revolution, 'Liberty' was imagined as a female figure who held the Torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of Rights of Man in the other. In the foreground the artist depicted the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions. In Sorrieu's idealist vision people of the world are grouped as distinct nations identified through their flags and national costumes. Leading the processions are the states of United States and Switzerland which were already nation-states at that time. France, with its revolutionary tricolour flag, had just reached the status.

Charlotte Bronte was an English novelist.  Her novels dealt with women who broke the established norms of the society before adjusting to them.  Such stories allowed women readers to sympathise with rebellious actions.  In Charlotte Bronte's, Jane Eyre, published in 1874, young Jane is shown as independent and assertive woman or girl.  While girls of her time were expected to be quiet and well behaved, Jane at the age of ten protests, against the hypocrisy of her elders with startling bluntness. She tells her aunt, who is always unkind to Jane: "People think you a good woman, but you ar bad You are deceitful! I will never call you aunt as long as I live."

(a) (i) During 18^th century, the middle classes became more prosperous.
    (ii) Women got more leisure to read as well as write novels.
    (iii) Novels started exploring their emotions and identities, their experiences and problems.
    (iv) Many novels deal with the domestic life.
    (v) There were some novels written by women novelists, which dealt with women who established norms of the society.
    (vi) Such stories allowed women readers to be supportive with rebellious actions.
    (vii) All these led to an increase in women readers in Britain.
(b) He is the hero of Daniel Defoe's novel 'Robinson Crusoe'.
    (i) He is an adventurer and slave trader.
    (ii) He treated coloured people not as human beings but as inferior creatures.
    (iii) He rescues a 'native' and makes him his slave.
    (iv) He does not ask for his names but gave him the name Friday.
    (v) These actions of Robinson Crusoe as a typical colonizer.
(c) (i) Before 1740, novels were costly. So only rich people could afford to buy a novel. Example - Henry Fielding's 'Tom Jones' novel.
    (ii) After 1740, libraries were introduced.
    (iii) Technological improvements cut down the price of novels and innovations in marketing led to expand the sales.
    (iv) Example - In France, publishers began to hire out novels by the hour.
    (v) All these measures helped the poorer people to read the novels.
(d) (i) When the modern novel developed, India was under colonial rule.
    (ii) Colonial rulers regarded the culture of India as inferior.
    (iii) Indian novelists did not like the behaviour of the colonial rulers.
    (iv) They were proud of India's culture.
    (v) So they wrote to develop a modern literature of the country that could produce a sense of national belonging and cultural equality with their colony.

Marianne and Germania were female allegories invented by artists in 19th century to represent the nation.
(a) Marianne-It is a popular Christian name to represent the allegory of France.  It symbolizes the the nation. She holds a torch in the right hand and a book in the left hand representing enlightenment and freedom respectively.  Her statue was erected in public squares to remind the people of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify it.  her images were marked on coins and stamps.  The ideas such as liberty, Justice and the Republic were represented through specific objects or symbols.  The Liberty for red cap or the broken chain, Justice was generally a blindfold woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
(b) Germania-It represent the allegory of Germany.  It symbolizes the nation.  She wears a crown of oak leaves symbolizing heroism and holding a sword in one hand and the flag in the other hand.

(a) Just about one-thirds of the students in Vietnam would pass the school examinations. This happened mainly as a well-planned policy was followed to fail the final year students. This meant they could never qualify for the white collar Jobs. On an average 2/3rd of the students were failed.
(b) The French began building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta. They . did this to gain increase in cultivation especially of the rice crop. By doing this, they would be able to sell rice in the international market and earn a lot of money.
(c) At Saigon Native Girls the School, a problem came up in 1926. A Vietnamese girl refused to vacate her front seat for a local French student. For this, she and later her supporting students were expelled from the school. Soon the agitation spread and protests began. When the situation became pretty serious the French government forced the school authorities to reinstate the girls in the school.
(d) The French wanted to modernise Vietnam. They modernised a part of Hanoi city with beautiful architecture and clean, wide roads.They planned a good sewage system for the area. But the other part of Hanoi was filthy and unattended to. The rats from the filthy areas soon reached the clean part of the city through sewage systems and soon modern Hanoi was suffering from rats everywhere and the accompanying plague.

Charles Dickens was the foremost English novelist of the Victorian era.  He wrote about the terrible effects of industrialisation on people's live and characters.  His novels Hard Times and Oliver Twist became world famous,
(i) Hard Times: His novel Hard Times (1854) describes Coketown, a fictitious industrial town, as a grim place full of machinery, smoking chimneys, rivers polluted purple and buildings that all looked the same.  Here workers are known as 'hands', as if they had no identity other than as operators of machines.  Dickens criticised not just the greed for profits but also the ideas that reduced human beings into simple instruments of production.
(ii) Oliver Twist : In other novels too, Dickens focused on the terrible conditions of urban life under industrial capitalism. His Oliver Twist (1838) is the tale of a poor orphan who lived in a world of petty criminals and beggars.  Brought up in a cruel workhouse, Oliver was finally adopted by a wealthy man and lived happily ever after.

In the 20th century a 'Go east movement' became popular.  In 1907-08, some 3000 Vietnamese students went to Japan to acquire modern education.  Their prime objective was to drive out French from Vietnam, over throw the puppet emperor and re-establish the Nguyen dynasty.  The Vietnamese nationalist looked for Japanese arms, and help because Japan had modernised itself and had resisted Colonisation by the West and its victory over Russian in 1907 proved its military capabilities.  A branch of the Restoration Society was established by Vietnamese students in Tokyo, but was put down by Japanese ministry.  Development in China also inspired Vietnamese nationalists.  In 1911, monarchy in China was overthrown by a popular movement under Sun Yat-Sen, and a Republic was set up.  Vietnamese students organized the Association for the Restoration of Vietnam.

The Habsburg Empire ruled over Austria-Hungary. It included the Alpine region of Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland as well as Bohemia along with Italian speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.

A body of people who are united by same past, culture, political system and common interests can be defined as a Nation.

Unrestricted, despotic and authoritarian monarchial system of rule of rule or government is referred to as absolutism.

Giuseppe Garibaldi and King Victor Emmanuel II were the two architects of the Italian Nation.

Industrialisation began in Europe during the 19th century and brought with it growth of towns and cities inhabited by strong commercial class which produced goods for domestic markets.
Along with it a class of people emerged called the new working class. It included professionals, businessmen and industrialists.
Though they were small in number, educated, liberal minded and believed in national unification. They strongly condemned aristocratic set up in the society. It was because of these ideals they gained popularity and emerged as a new social class. They stood for equality and freedom and stressed the formation of constitution given preference to representative from of government rather than established autocratic regimes.

During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, the centre by the Pope and the southern regions by the Bourbon kings of Spain. Italian language had varieties of dialects; therefore, it was not stable in its form. During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called 'Young Italy' for the dissemination of his goals. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war. A unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance. Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. With a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. In 1859, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, Sardinia- Piedmont's forces marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.