The following were the challenges faced by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
(a) The French troops tried to re-establish their control over Vietnam by using the puppet emperor Bao Dai. It was after eight years that the Vietnamese were able to defeat the French.
(b) In the peace negotiations in Geneva, Vietnam was divided into north and south Vietnam.
(c) This division set in motion various events which turned Vietnam into a battlefield and brought death and destruction.
(d) Bao Dai's regime was overthrown by Ngo Dinh Diem and was followed by the setting up of repressive and authoritarian government which did not tolerate opposition. Many were arrested and killed for opposing the regime of Diem.
(e) Entry of US into the Vietnamese war turned the situation more serious. The war saw the use of chemical weapons that destructed towns and villages and made the life of the Vietnamese miserable.

The following were the features of the Vietnam War.
(a) It was also called the first television war as it was shown on the the daily news programmes.
(b) This war disillusioned many about the US involvement. Within US, people praised the efforts of Vietnamese in defending their country.
(c) The Vietnam War became the greatest threat to peace, national self-determination, and international cooperation.
(d) It led to a worldwide condemnation.
(e) It forced the US government to negotiate an end of the war.

Vietnamese students went to Japan with following objectives.
(a) Their primary objective was to gain support and arms to drive French from Vietnam, to remove the puppet emperor and to establish Nguyen Dynasty.
(b) Japan provided them with a confidence in modernising themselves and resisting colonisation through military capabilities.
(c) Japan inspired the Vietnamese nationalists as a modern nation which signified change. Vietnamese students were sent there to acquire modern education.
(d) Japan also provided a refuge to those who escaped French police.
(e) Japan provided a location from where a wider network of revolutionaries could be established.

The French hired Vietnamese workers to get rid of the plague. But their efforts produced no effective results. Those who did the dirty work of entering sewers found innovative ways to earn from this menace. A bounty was paid when a tail was given as proof that a rat had been killed. They had to produce the tails of the rats they killed as a proof. So after clipping the tails of the rats, they were released by the Vietnamese and this process was repeated. Many Vietnamese even began raising rats to earn huge profits. The Vietnamese took this opportunity to resist the colonial rule. Thus, the measures to prevent plague proved ineffective.

The French had made up their mind to systemically dismantle the traditional educational system of Vietnam and establish their own. They glorified themselves, their ways and justified colonial rule. But the teachers and students did not blindly follow the new curriculum imposed on them and at times resisted openly. The teachers and students organised resistance against the French in the following ways.
(a) The teachers modified the text and criticised what was stated in the books.
(b) The students openly resisted the discrimination done against them by the French teachers in the schools. The incident of the Saigon Native Girls School was a bold protest when a Vietnamese girl sitting in one of the front seats in the class was asked to sit in back to allow a French student occupy the front seat. On refusal, the Vietnamese girl was expelled which fuelled the sentiments of other students. This led to an open protest. Fearing the situation might go beyond control, the expelled student was taken back. 
(c) In other parts of Vietnam, students resisted French efforts to prevent white-collar jobs to the Vietnamese.
(d) Vietnamese students began to organise political parties like Young Annan. Schools turned into places for political and cultural battles.
(e) Various nationalist journals such as the Annanese student were published by the students to spread nationalist sentiments.

The following steps were taken by the French to dismantle the Chinese influence in Vietnam.
(a) French schools were established to spread western outlook.
(b) Medium of instruction was replaced either by French or by Vietnamese. 
(c) Chinese language used by the elites in Vietnam was discouraged.
(d) The Vietnamese were forced to learn French culture.
(e) Tonkin Free School was set up to provide western-style education to spread French culture.
(f) In religion, the French introduction Christianity in Vietnam which challenged Confucianism, the Chinese religion followed by many Vietnamese.

Under the domination of French, Vietnam was subjected to the interests of colonisers. Vietnam supplied natural resources and other essential goods to France on their terms. The French took up some irrigational works and built canals, but this was aimed at increasing rice production for export to international markets and make profits. The French-based Vietnam's economy was primarily dependent on rice cultivation and rubber plantations owned by the French themselves along with a small section of Vietnamese elite. Indentured Vietnamese labour was used in the rubber plantation. It led to miserable life for the Vietnamese. No efforts were made to set up industrialisation in Vietnam. Agricultural productivity was low and peasants were under heavy debts. Unemployment prevailed. Landlordism existed and the standard of living of the people was poor.

Civilizing Mission: The French, like the British, claimed they were bringing modern civilization to the Vietnamese. They wanted to introduce modern ideas to the colony even if this meant destroying local cultures, religion and traditions as it was seen as outdated and prevented development. The French needed educated labour force but once educated it would create problems for them - they might lose their jobs and they might question colonial domination.
Talking Modern: The elites in Vietnam were influenced by the Chinese culture. To consolidate the French power, they had to counter the Chinese influence. They had to dismantle the traditional system of education and establish French Schools for the Vietnamese. They wanted to replace the Chinese language. French language to be the medium of instruction was felt by policy makers. Others opposed it and suggested Vietnamese be taught in the lower classes and French in the higher classes. Only a small fraction of population could enroll in schools and only a few could pass school leaving examinations. Their school text books glorified.French and the colonial rule. The Vietnamese were represented as primitive, backward, capable of manual labour, first to work in the fields and were skilled copyists and not creative.
Western style of Education: The Tonkin Free School was started in 1907 to provide Western Style of Education. This education included classes in Science, hygiene and French. They encouraged the Western style such as having a short haircut as against their traditional long hair.
Resistance in Schools: Vietnamese teachers and students who were rapidly increasing in numbers opposed the curriculum either through open opposition or silent resistance. The Vietnamese teachers subtly modified and criticized the texts. The students fought against the colonial governmen's efforts in providing the posts of white-collar jobs only for the French. In 1920 s, students were forming various political parties such as the Party of Young Annan and publishing nationalist journals ("Annanese student"). The schools became the hubs of the formation of political ideas and revolutions. The Vietnamese intellectuals feared the loss of both the Vietnamese territory and culture. They believed that the native culture and customs were being devalued and the development of a master-slave mentality was on the progress in the country. The colonial education and its resistance ultimately added to the larger picture of the entire revolution.

The Entry of the US into the War (1965-1972) : The US was apprehensive that establishment of a communist regime would spark a chain reaction which could lead to formation of similar regimes in the surrounding parts of the world. In order to stop the spread of communism, the US attacked Vietnam. The US occupation of Vietnam involved use of a high number of services personnel and also the use of latest warfare. In spite of advanced technology and good medical supplies, the US casualties were very high in Vietnam. Even the most powerful bombers of the time, the B52s were used in the battle. About 47,000 US soldiers died and 303,000 were wounded. About 23,000 suffered 100% disability. The struggle of the Vietnamese people against the US showed that the inspiration of saving the motherland can turn even the weak into a great battle force. The US probably underestimated this factor. Effect on US : Most of the people in the US were highly critical of the US involvement in Vietnam. Many contemporary thinkers were of the opinion that the US should not have involved itself in a war was impossible to win.

We have read that Vietnamese women contributed to the resistance movement as workers as well as warriors. They were employed as porters carrying 25 kg of food and war materials on their delicate backs. They served as nurses to the wounded. They even went on to dig tunnels so that the imperialist attacks could be thwarted by hiding Vietnamese army in the tunnels. They worked bravely to neutralise thousands of bombs and shooting down the enemy planes. Nearly 1.5 million women workers were in the army. They helped in keeping strategic roads clear and even guarded the key points. It is difficult to imagine the state of the Vietnamese freedom struggle with the active role of Vietnamese women. Women played a crucial role in the anti-imperial struggle in Vietnam. Women who rebelled against social conventions were idealised and rebel women of the past were likewise celebrated. Trieu Au was a popular figure in nationalist tales. In the 1960s, women were represented as brave soldiers and workers. They assisted in nursing wounded soldiers, constructing underground tunnels and fighting the enemy. Interestingly, between 1965 and 1975, 70-80% of the youth working on the Ho Chi Minh trail were women. Compared to this very direct and active participation of Vietnamese women in the anti-imperial struggle, IndiJ women did not play a very dynamic role in the nationalist struggle ofIndia against Great Britain. They followed Gandhian ideals of boycotting foreign goods and picketing liquor shops, but mainstream politics was controlled by men; although women like Sarojini Naidu, Kamla Nehru and Kasturba Gandhi were keenly involved