(i) Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)
(ii) 2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2, 4-D)

Cell Theory (Malthias Scheiden, 1868; Schwarm, 1839; and Rudolf Virchow, 1855)
Cell theory as understood today is:
(i) all living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
(ii) all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

(i) Metaphase
(ii) Anaphase
(iii) Zygotene stage of meiosis-I
(iv) Pachytene stage of prophase-I

Macromolecules are large sized complex molecules having large molecular weight and low solubility which are formed by polymerisation of a number of micromolecules. They may be branched or unbranched. The common cellular macromolecules are polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids.

X is a carpel; A is ovary; B is style and C is stigma.

The Methanobacterium present in the food of the cattle digests the cellulose present. The dung then produced by the cattle contains these methanogens which can be used for the production of biogas also known as the gobar gas.

Linnaeus proposed the two kingdom classification in  1758

(a) A flower is actinomorphic.
(b) The calyx of a flower is gamosepalous, if the sepals are united.
(c) The ovary is syncarpous, if the carpels are fused together. if it can be cut into two equal parts along any radial plane passing through the centre.

(i) Indole Butyric Acid (IBA)
(ii) Ethylene
(ii) Cytokinin
(iv) Cytokinin
(v) Gibberellin
(vi) Abscisic acid

Passive Transport. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules present on either side of it. Many molecules can move briefly across the membrane without any requirement of energy and this is called the passive transport.
Osmosis. Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion along the concentration gradient, i.e., from higher concentration to the lower. Water may also move across this membrane from higher to lower concentration. Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis.
Active Transport. As the polar molecules cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid bilayer, they require a carrier protein of the membrane to facilitate their transport across the membrane. A few ions or molecules are transported across the membrane against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to the higher concentration. Such a transport is an energy-dependent process, in which ATP is utilised and is called active transport, e.g., Na⁺/K⁺ Pump.

Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

Difference between dendrites and axons are as follows:

The inflorescence is how the flowers are arranged on the flowering axis. During the flowering season, the vegetative apex of the stem gets converted into a floral meristem. Based on whether the floral axis continues to grow or ends in a flower, the inflorescence is classified into racemose and cymose. In racemose inflorescence, the floral axis continues to grow and produces flowers laterally. On the other hand, in a cymose inflorescence, the main axis terminates into a flower. Hence, it is limited in growth.
Growth : Indefinite (race mose) and definite.
Number of branches : Cymose, uniparous, biparous, multiparous
Pedicel : Presence or absence of pedicel in inflorescene.
Branching of peduncle : Unbranched and branched.
Sex of flowers : Certain types have unisexual flowers. e.g, Catkin.

Presence or absence of a cavity between the body wall and the gut wall is very important in classification. The body cavity which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom.
(i) Animals possessing coleom are called coelmate , e.g annelids, molluscs , arthropods, echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates.
(ii) In some, animals, the body cavity id not mesoderm, instead the mesoderm is present as scattered pouchesin between the ectoderm and endoderm. Such a body possessing them are called pseudocoelomates, e.g aschelminthes .
(iii) The animals in which the body cavity is absent are known as acoelomates, e.g plathyhelminthes . This helps, in assigning the excat taxonomic position of the animal on the basis of its presence or absence in the animal's body

Lichen:
1. It signifies a symbiotic relationship between the algae and fungi.
2. In this association, the fungi provide shelter and protection to algae and in return get nutrition from algae.
Phycobiont and mycobiont:
1. They both are the components of a lichen.
2. Phycobiont signifies the algal component of a lichen.
3. On the other hand, mycobiont signifies the fungal constituent of a lichen.

Semi-technical descriptions of flowers of following families are:
Fabaceae
Family - Fabaceae
Vegetative characters
Herb
Leaf: Pinnately compound, alternately arranged with leaf tendrils with the pulvinus present at the leaf base. Venation is reticulate. 
Root: Tap root system with root nodules.
Floral features:
Inflorescence: racemose .
Flower: zygomorphic and bisexual.
Calyx: Sepals which are gamosepalous while aestivation is imbricate.
Corolla: five petals (polypetalous) with vexillary aestivation.
Androecium: ten anthers that are diadelphous with dithecous anthers.
Gynoecium: Monocarpellary superior ovary which is unilocular with marginal   placentation.
Fruit: Legume pod with non-endospermic seeds
Floral formula:

Floral Diagram:

Solanaceae
Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) 
Family  - Solanaceae
Vegetative characters
Shrub
Stem: herbaceous stem, aerial, erect , branched solid
Leaf: alternate , simple, exstipulate and reticulate venation
Floral features:
Inflorescence: Cymose
Flower: bisexual and actinomorphic.
Calyx:  five sepals, united persistant, valvate aestivation
Corolla: five petals, united, valvate aestivation
Androecium: five stamens, epipetalous
Gynoecium: bicarpellary, syncarpous superior ovary, bilocular, placenta swollen with many ovules
Fruit: berry
Seeds: many endosperms​

Mechanism of synaptic transmission
Synapse is a junction between two neurons. It is present between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of next neuron separated by a cleft.
There are two ways of synaptic transmission.
(1) Chemical transmission
(2) Electrical transmission
1. Chemical transmission – When a nerve impulse reaches the end plate of axon, it releases a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) across the synaptic cleft. This chemical is synthesized in cell body of the neuron and is transported to the axon terminal. The acetylcholine diffuses across the cleft and binds to the receptors present on the membrane of next neuron. This causes depolarization of membrane and initiates an action potential.
2. Electrical transmission – In this type of transmission, an electric current is formed in the neuron. This electric current generates an action potential and leads to transmission of nerve impulse across the nerve fibre. This represents a faster method of nerve conduction than the chemical method of transmission.

Every chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or the centromere on the sides of which disc-shaped structures called kinetochores are present. Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes can be classified into four types.
Metacentric Chromosome : The metacentric chromosome has middle centromere forming two equal arms of the chromosome. Sub-metacentric Chromosome. The sub-metacentric chromosome has centromere nearer to one end of the chromosome resulting into one shorter arm and one longer arm.
             
Acrocentric Chromosome : In case of acrocentric chromosome, the centromere is situated close to its end forming one extremely short and one very long arm, Telocentric Chromosome. The telocentric chromosome has a terminal centromere.

Plant growth regulators are the chemical molecules secreted by plants affecting the physiological attributes of a plant. There are five main plant growth regulators. These are: Auxins, Gibberellic acid, Cytokinins, Ethylene and Abscisic acid
(i) Auxins
Discovery:
1. The first observations regarding the effects of auxins were made by Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin wherein they saw the coleoptiles of canary gross bending toward a unilateral source of light.
2. It was concluded after a series of experiments that some substance produced at the tip of coleoptiles was responsible for the bending. Finally, this substance was extracted as auxins from the tips of coleoptiles in oat seedlings.
Physiological functions:
1. They control plant cell-growth.
2. They cause the phenomenon of apical dominance.
3. They control division in the vascular cambium and xylem differentiation. - They induce parthenocarpy and prevent abscission of leaves and fruits.
Horticultural applications:
1. They are used as the rooting hormones in stem cuttings.
2. 2-4 D is used weedicide to kill broadleaf, dicotyledonous weeds.
3. They induce parthenocarpy in tomatoes.
4. They promote flowering in pineapple and litchi.
(ii) Gibberellic acid 
Discovery: Bakane or the “foolish rice seedling” disease was first observed by Japanese farmers. In this disease, rice seedlings appear to grow taller than natural plants and become slender and pale green. Later, after several experiments, it was found that this condition was caused by the infection from a certain fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. The active substance was isolated and identified as gibberellic acid.
Physiological functions:
1. It causes elongation of internodes.
2. It promotes bolting in rosette plants.
3. It helps in inducing seed germination by breaking seed dormancy and initiating the synthesis of hydrolases enzymes for digesting reserve food.
Horticultural applications:
1. It helps in increasing the sugar content in sugarcane by increasing the length of the internodes.
2. It increases the length of grape stalks.
3. It improves the shape of an apple.
4. It delays senescence.
5. It hastens maturity and induces seed-production in juvenile conifers.
(iii) Cytokinins
Discovery: Through their experimental observations, F. Skoog and his co-workers found that the tobacco callus differentiated when extracts of vascular tissues, yeast extract, coconut milk, or DNA were added to the culture medium. This led to the discovery of cytokinins.
Physiological functions:
1. They promote the growth of lateral branches by inhibiting apical dominance.
2. They help in the production of new leaves, chloroplasts, and adventitious shoots.
3. They help in delaying senescence by promoting nutrient mobilisation.
Horticultural applications:
1. They are used for preventing apical dominance.
2. They are used for delaying senescence in leaves.
(iv) Ethylene 
Discovery: It was observed that unripe bananas ripened faster when stored with ripe bananas. Later, the substance promoting the ripening was found to be ethylene.
Physiological functions:
1. It helps in breaking seed and bud dormancy.
2. It promotes rapid internode-elongation in deep-water rice plants.
3. It promotes root-growth and formation of root hairs.
4. It promotes senescence and abscission of leaves and flowers.
5. It hastens the respiration rate in fruits and enhances fruit ripening.
Horticultural applications:
1. It is used to initiate flowering and synchronising the fruit set in pineapples.
2. It induces flowering in mango.
3. Ethephon is used to ripen the fruits in tomatoes and apples, and accelerate the abscission of flowers and leaves in cotton, cherry, and walnut.
4. It promotes the number of female flowers in cucumbers.
(v) Abscisic acid 
Discovery: During the mid-1960s, inhibitor-B, abscission II, and dormin were discovered by three independent researchers. These were later on found to be chemically similar and were thereafter called ABA (Abscisic acid).
Physiological functions: 
1. It acts as an inhibitor to plant metabolism.
2. It stimulates stomatal closure during water stress.
3. It induces seed dormancy.
4. It induces abscission of leaves, fruits, and flowers.
Horticultural application: It induces seed dormancy in stored seeds.

(i) Hydrogen, carboxyl group, amino group, variable (R) group.
(ii) Due to the enormously varying R group, there are many different types of amino acids.
(iii)
 
(iv) The acidic amino acids contain one amino group and two carboxyl groups per molecule, e.g. glutamic acid  and aspartic acid.

(a) Cell is considered the fundamental structural and functional unit of life because anything less than a complete structure of a cell does not ensure independent living.
(b) Unicellular organisms are capable of
(i) independent existence.
(ii) performing all the essential life processes.
(c) (i) Anton Von Leeuwenhoek
(ii) Theodore Schwann