The hierarchical order in which the operators are used for operation is known as precedence of operators.

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is the term used to describe a programming approach based on classes and objects.

Binary equivalent of -13 = 1101
8 bit format =00001101
1's complement =11110010
Add 1 to LSB =+1
2' s Complement of -13 -11110011

It will be executed only when the condition statement is true.

In refinement, each statement is repeatedly expanded into more detailed statements in the subsequent levels.

1. Recursion is a method of solving problems that involves breaking a problem down into smaller and smaller sub problems until user gets in to a small problem that it can be solved trivially.
2. Usually recursion involves a function calling itself. While it may not seem like much on the surface, recursion allows us to write elegant solutions to problems that may otherwise be very difficult to program.

Advantages:
(i) It is free of cost
(ii) Accessible to everybody.
(iii) Not belongs to particular vendor.
(iv) It can be modified, for requirements.

Different server distributions in Linux OS:
Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Debian, Fedora, RedHat.

The ALU is a part of CPU where various computing functions are performed on data. ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and logical operations.

Objects:
Represents data and its associated function together into a single unit. Objects are the basic unit of OOP. Basically an object is created from a class. They are instances of class also called as class variables. An identifiable entity with some characteristics and behaviour is called object.

(i) To quit a application, click the close button in the upper right corner of the application window.
(ii) Click File → Exit
(iii) Click File → Close option

#include < iostream.h >
using namespace std;
int main ( )
{
int i, sum=0;
for(i=l; i < =10; i++)
{
sum=sum + i;
}
cout << "The sum of 1 to 10 is" << sum;
return 0;
}
Output
The sum of 1 to 10 is 55

The strupr() function is used to convert the given string into Uppercase letters.
For example:
int mair()
{
char strl[50];
cout << "\nType any string in Lower case:";
gets(str 1);
cout<< "\nConverted the Sources
string' << strl << into Uppe case 
is"<< strupr( str 1);
return 0;
}
Output:
Type any string in Lower case: computer science
Converted the Source string computer science into
Upper Case is COMPUTER SCIENCE

x+ = x+++x (x - 5)
x+ = x+++5 (x becomes 6)
x+ = 6 + 6
x+ = 12
x = 6 + 12
x = 18

(i) PROM - Programmable Read only Memory.
(ii) EPROM - Erasable Read only Memory.
(iii) EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory.

(i) Vacuum tubes contain electrodes for controlling electron flow and were used in early computers as a switch or an amplifier.
(ii) Vaccum tubes are big in size and consumed more power.

(i) This algorithm is based on queuing technique. This is the basic logic of the FIFO algorithm.
(ii) Technically, the process that enters the queue first is executed first by the CPU, followed by the next and so on.
(iii) The processes are executed in the order of the queue (row).

Microprocessors can be classified based on the following criteria:
1. The width. of data that can be processed
2. The instruction set
Classification of Microprocessors based on the Data Width
Depending on the data width, microprocessors can process instructions. The microprocessors can be classified as follows:
1. 8-bit microprocessor
2 16-bit microprocessor
3. 32-bit microprocessor
4. 64-bit microprocessor
Classification of Microprocessors based on Instruction Set
The size of the instruction set is another important consideration while categonzmg microprocessors. Initially, microprocessors had very small instruction sets because complex hardware was expensive as well as difficult to build. As technology had developed to overcome . these issues, more and more complex instructions were added to increase the functionality of microprocessors. Let us learn more about the two types of microprocessors based. on their instruction sets.
Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computers. They have a small set of highly optimized instructions. Complex instructions are also implemented using simple instructions, thus reducing the size of the instruction set.
Examples of RISC processors are Pentium IV, Intel P6, AMD.K6 and K7.
Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computers. They support hundreds of instructions. Computers supporting CISC can accomplish a wide variety of tasks, making them ideal for personal computers.
Examples of CISC processors are Intel 386 & 486, Pentium, Pentium II and III, and Motorola 68000.

Advantages of OOP:
(i) Re-usability: Write once and use it multiple times you can achieve this by using class.
(ii) Redundancy: Inheritance is the good feature for data redundancy. If you need a same functionability in multiple class you can write a common class for the same functionality and inherit that class to sub class.
(iii) Easy Maintenance: It is easy to maintain and modify existing code as new objects can be created with small difference to existing ones.
(iv) Security: Using data hiding and abstraction only necessary data will be provided thus maintains the security of data.
Disadvantages of OOP:
(i) Size: Object Oriented Programs are much larger than other programs.
(ii) Effort: Object Oriented Programs require a lot of work to create.
(iii) Speed: Object Oriented Programs are slower than other programs, because of their size

Constructor	Destructor
The name of the constructor must be same as that of the class.	The destructor has the same name as that of the class prefixed by the tilde character '~'..
No return type can be specified for constructor.	It has no return type.
A constructor can have parameter list.	The destructor cannot have arguments
The constructor function can be overloaded.	Destructors cannot be overloaded i.e., there can be only one destructor in a class.
They cannot be inherited but a derived class can call the base class constructor.	They cannot be inherited.
The compiler generates a constructor, in the absence of a user defined constructor.	In the absence of user defined destructor, it is generated by the compiler.

The loop invariant is true in four crucial points in a loop. Using the loop invariant, we can construct the loop and reason about the properties of the variables at these points.
Example:
Design an iterative algorithm to compute aⁿ , Let us name the algorithm power(a, n).
For example,
power(10, 4) = 10000
power (5 , 3) = 125
power (2 , 5) = 32
Algorithm power (a, n) computes aⁿ by multiplying a cumulatively n times.

The specification and the loop invariant are shown as comments.
power (a, n)
-- inputs: n is a positive integer
-- outputs: p = aⁿ
p, i := 1 ,0
while i \(\neq \) n
-- loop invariant: p = a ⁱ
p, i:=p x a, i+ 1
The step by step execution of power (2, 5) is shown in Table. Each row shows the values of the two variables p and i at the end of an iteration, and how they are calculated. We see that p = a' is true at the start of the loop, and remains true in each row. Therefore, it is a loop invariant.

iteration	p	p\(\times \)a	i	i+1	ai
0 1 2 3 4 5	1 2 4 8 16 32	1 \(\times \) 2 2  \(\times \) 2 4  \(\times \) 2 8  \(\times \) 2 16 \(\times \) 2	0 1 2 3 4 5	0+1 1+1 2+1 3+! 4+1	20 21 22 23 24 25

When the loop ends, p = a' is still true, but i = 5. Therefore, p = a5. In general, when the loop ends, p = an. Thus, we have verified that power(a, n) satisfies its specification.

The alternative statement analyses the problem into two cases. The case analysis statement generalizes it to multiple cases. Case analysis splits the problem into an exhaustive set of disjoint cases. For each case, the problem is solved independently. if Cl, C2, and C3 are conditions, and S1, S2, S3, and S4 are statements, a 4-case analysis statement has the form,
1. Case C1
2. S1
3. Case C2
4. S2
5. Case C3
6. S3
7. else
8.S4
The conditions C1, C2, and C3 are evaluated in turn. For the first condition that evaluates to true, the corresponding statement is executed, and the case analysis statement ends. If none of the conditions evaluates to true, then the default case S4 is executed.
1. The cases are exhaustive: at least one' of the cases is true. If all conditions are false, the default case is true.
2. The cases are disjoint: only one of the cases is true. Though it is possible for more than one condition to be true, the case analysis always executes only one case, the first one that is true. If the three conditions are disjoint, then the four cases are (1) C1, (2) C2, (3) C3, (4), (not C1) and (not C2) and (not C3).

1. m, n:= 2, 5
2. -- m, n = ? , ?
3. m,n: = m + 3, n - 1
4. -- m, n = ? , ?
The assignment in line (1) stores 2 in variable m, and 5 in variable n.
\(m\ n\\ \boxed { 2 } \ \boxed { 5 } \)
The assignment in line (3) evaluates the expressions m + 3 and n - 1 using the current values of m and n as
m+3,n-1
= 2+ 3,5-1
=5,4
and stores the values 5 and 4 in the variables m and n, respectively.
\(m\ n\\ \boxed { 4 } \ \boxed { 4 } \)
1. m, n:= 2,5
2. -- m, n = 2 , 5
3. m, n : = m + 3, n - 1
4. -- m, n = 2 + 3, 5-1 = 5, 4
Values of the variables after the two assignments are shown in line (2) and line (4).

(i) Scanner:
Scanners are used to enter the information directly into the computer's memory. This device works like a Xerox machine. The scanner converts any type of printed or written information including photographs into a digital format, which can be manipulated by the computer.
(ii) Fingerprint Scanners: 
Fingerprint Scanner is a fingerprint recognition device used for computer security, equipped with the fingerprint recognition feature that uses biometric technology. Fingerprint Reader / Scanner is a very safe and convenient device for security instead of using passwords, which is vulnerable to fraud and is hard to remember.
(iii) Monitor:
Monitor is the most commonly used output device to display the information. It looks like a TV. Pictures on a monitor are formed with picture elements called PIXELS. Monitors may either be Monochrome which display text or images in Black and White or can be color, which display results in multiple colors. There are many types of monitors available such as CRT (Cathode Ray Tube), LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) and LED (Light Emitting Diodes). The monitor works with the VGA (Video Graphics Array) card. The video graphics card helps the keyboard to communicate with the screen. It acts as an interface between the computer and display monitor. Usually the recent motherboards incorporate built-in video card.
(iv) Plotter:
Plotter is an output device that is used to produce graphical output on papers. It uses single colour or multi colour pens to draw pictures.

S.No Versions Logo Year Prominent feature 1. Windows 1.x 1985 1. Introduction of GUI in 16 - bit. processor
2. Mouse was introduced as an input device 2. Windows 2.x 1987 1. Supports to minimize or maximize windows.
2. Control panel feature was introduced with
various system settings and customizing options. 3. Windows 3.x 1992 1. Introduced the concept of multitasking.
2. Supported 256 colors which brought a more
modern, colorful look to the interface. 4. Windows 95 1995 1. Introduced Start button, the taskbar, Windows Explorer and Start menu.
2. Introduced 32 - bit processor and focused more on multitasking. 5. Windows 98 1998 1. Integration of the Web browser (Internet Explorer) with the Operating System.
2. DOS gaming began to disappear as Windows-based games improved.
3. Plug and play feature was introduced. 6. Windows NT   Designed to act as servers in network. 7. Windows Me 2000 It introduced automated system diagnostics and recovery tools. 8. Windows 2000 2000 1. Served as an Operating System for business
desktop and laptop systems.
2. Four versions of Windows 2000 were released: Professional (for business)
3. desktop and laptop systems), Server (both a
Web server and an office server),
4. Advanced Server (for line-of-business 
applications) and Data Centre Server (for high traffic computer networks). 9. Windows XP 2001 1. Introduced 64-bit Processor.
2. Improved Windows appearance with themes and offered a stable version 10. Windows Vista 2006 Updated the look and feel of Windows 11. Windows 7 2009 Booting time was improved, introduced new user interfaces like Aero Peek, pinning programs to the taskbar, handwriting recognition etc, and Internet Explorer 8. 12. Windows 8 2012 1. Windows 8 was faster than previous versions of Windows.
2. Start button was removed
3. Windows 8 takes better advantage of multicore processing, solid-state drives (SSD), touch screens, and other alternate input methods.
4. Served as a common platform for mobile and computer. 13. Windows 10 2015 1. Start Button was added again.
2. Multiple desktops.
3. Central Notification Center for App notification and quick actions.
4. Cortana voice-activated personal assistant.

1101010₂ + 101101₂
1101010
+101101
________
10010111
________
1101010₂ + 101101₂  = 10010111₂

1. hypotenuse (a, b)
2. -- inputs: a, b are real numbers, a > 0, b > 0
3 -- outputs: c²=a² + b² where c is real number, c > 0