(a) R.H. Whittaker
(b)The kingdoms are:
(i) Monera,
(ii) Protista
(iii) Fungi
(iv) Plantae and
(v) Animalia

Bacteria are prokaryotes which belong to kingdom Monera. Monerans do not have nuclear membrane enclosing the nucleus of the cell.

Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily done and was easy to understand.

Lichens growing on rocks secrete organic acids like oxalic acid. The acids enter the rock and produce a number of honey comb-like small crevices. Mass spores are able to grow over such crevices and start the process of succession and soil formation.

Ascospore formation is the characteristic of class-Ascomycetes. Ascospores are a type of non-motile meiospores which are produced inside special sacs called asci (sing. ascus). An ascus often contains 8 ascospores because meiosis is accompanied by one mitotic division

Viroids are free RNA molecules of low molecular weight without any protein coat while viruses can have either RNA or DNA molecules encapsulated in a protein coat. Viroids are smaller in size than viruses. Viroids infect only plants whereas virus infects all types of organisms. In viroids, a protein coat is absent whereas in viruses a protein covering or a coat called a capsid is present around the genetic material.

A virus cannot grow on non-living culture medium because it needs living cells for its metabolism and multiplication.

Lichens are dual organisms which contain a fungus or mycobiont and an alga or phycobinot.

Bracket or shelf fungi are lignocolous fungi which produce bracket or shelf-shaped, hard, leathery basidiocarps that are found to come out from the tree trunk on loss of wood, e.g., Fomes tomentarius, etc.

Bacteriophages are viruses which kill bacteria. They are numbered T₁ to T₇ as their types. The shape of bacteriophages is tadpole - like with a head and a tail.

Plants are generally autotrophic.However, some plants like Nepenthes (pitcher plant), Utricularia (bladderwort), Venus fly trap and some parasites like Cuscuta are examples of partially heterotrophic plants. They supplement their nitrogen requirement by capturing and digesting insects.

Capsid is a proteinacceous covering around the virus. It protects the nucleoid from damage from physical and chemical agents.

Algae, Bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Plantae, Protista, and Animalia

Ernst Haeckel (1866)

Aristotle divided animals in two groups. These are Enaima (with red blood ) and Enaima (without red blood)

Wriggling, cilia, mucilage propulsion, pseudopodia.

Difference between  dinoflagellates and euglenoids are

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of an organism. It shows the true kinship of organism. Such relationships are not clear in all cases. Only fossil record can provide such relationship, but complete records are not available for such studies. Hence, the phylogenetic relationships are ascertained from morphology, cytology, genetics, physiology, and biochemistry for the correct classification of the organisms.

(i) Basidiocarp : It may be minute or very large structure which bears basidia, e.g., bracket fungi, puffballs.
(ii) Basidia : These are special reproductive bodies of Basidiomycetes where karyogamy, meiosis and basidiospore formation occurs.
(iii) Basidiospores : These are meiospores of Basidiomycetes. Basidiospores are borne at the tips of sterigmata or outgrowths of basidia.

(i) Mycelium : Mycelium is coenocytic and non-septate or aseptate. Septa are formed only in connection with separation of old senescent parts and delimitation of reproductive structures.
(ii)  Eucarpy and holocarpy : In eucarpy, only a portion of somatic body is transformed into reproductive body. In holocarpy, transformation of the somatic body into reproductive structure is found in only some primitive forms.
(iii) Asexual reproduction : It involves the formation of sporangia. The sporangia function as conidia in dry habitats as zoosporangia under wet conditions.

Reproduction in fungi occurs by asexual and sexual methods. Asexually, it takes place either by formation of motile spores or by formation of non-motile spores or conidia. Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes fungi produce fruiting bodies by sexual process called ascospores and basidiospores, respectively.

A bacterial cell consists of following components
Cell envelope : It is the outer covering of protoplasm of bacterial cell. It contains mucilage sheath, cell wall and plasma membrane.
Cytoplasm : It is a crystallo - colloidal complex that forms the protoplasm excluding its nucleoid. Membrane bound cell organelles are absent. Cytoplasm along with nucleoid are together called as protoplasm.​​​​​​​
Nucleoid : It represents the genetic material of prokaryotes. Nucleoid consists of a single circular strand of DNA duplex which is super coiled with the help of RNA. No nuclear envelope is present.​​​​​​​
Plasmids : these are self-replicating , extrachromosomal segments of double-stranded, circular, naked DNA.​​​​​​​
Flagella : These are unstranded, equivalent to a single microtubular fibre. These help in movement and locomotion.​​​​​​​
Pili and Fimbriae : Pili are longer, fewer and thicker tubular outgrowths made up of protein pilin. Fimbriae are small bristle-like fibres sprouting from cell surface in large number. Pili are helpful in attaching to recipient cell and forming conjugation tube. Fimbriae cause agglutination of RBC.They also help in mutual clinging of bacteria.

Viruses are intermediate between living and non - living objects.
They resemble non - living objects in
(i) Lacking protoplast.
(ii) Ability to get crystallised.
(iii) High specific gravity which is found only in non - living objects.
(iv) Absence of respiration and energy storing system.
(v) Absence of growth and division.
(vi) Cannot live independent of a living cell.
They resemble living objects in
(i) Presence of genetic material (DNA or RNA).
(ii) Capable of mutation.
(iii) Irritability.
(iv) Can grow and multiply inside the host cell.