(a) The concept and practices of a modern state with sovereign centralised power developed in Europe.
(b) Nation-state was supposed to be a state where majority of its citizens shared common identity and history.
(c) Nations began to be personified i.e. they were represented as a person with characteristics that identified their nations.
Mainly female figures were used to portray the nation.

Paul Bernard, an influential writer and policy-maker during the French colonisation of Vietnam, strongly believed in the economic development of the colonies. He held the following views on the economy of Vietnam.
(a) He believed that the living standard of the people of Vietnam should be developed so that they may be able to buy more goods and services and help expand the market and increase profits for French businessmen.
(b) Bernard identified that increased population, low agricultural productivity and debt among the peasants as the barriers to economic growth in Vietnam.
(c) He suggested that lands reforms needed to be carried out to increase productivity and reduce rural poverty.
(d) He believed that industrialisation was necessary to create job opportunities.

The term BAMCEF signifies Backward and Minorities Community Employees Federation.
The two main objectives of BAMCEF are as follows.
1.It wants to eradicate caste discrimination.
2.Its principal aim is social Justice and social equality for the entire society.

A challenge is not just any problem. Only those difficulties are a 'challenge' which are significant and can be overcome and therefore carry within them an opportunity for progress. Democracy is the dominant form of government in the contemporary world. It does not face a particular challenger, but the promise of democracy is far from realised anywhere in the world. Democracy as a whole faces certain challenges. Legal constitutional changes by themselves cannot help to overcome challenges to democracy-like economic inequality, unemployment, illiteracy, caste, gender discrimination. Democratic reforms can be carried out by political activities, parties, movements and politically conscious citizens, in order to realise the opportunity in a challenge, in order to overcome it an go up to a higher level.

The Reserve Bank of India supervises the functions of banks in a number of ways:
(a) The commercial banks are required to hold part of their cash reserves with their RBI. RBI ensures that the banks maintain a minimum cash balance out of the deposits they receive.
(b) RBI observes that the banks give loans not just to profit making businesses and traders but also to small cultivators, small scale industries, small borrowers etc.
(c) The commercial banks have to submit information to the RBI on how much they are lending, to whom, at what interest rate etc. This is necessary to ensure equality in the economy of the country and protect especially small depositors, farmers, small scale industries, small borrowers etc. In this process RBI also acts as the lender of the last resort to the banks.

The characteristics of a political party are
(i) They reflect fundamental political division in a society.
(ii) Parties are a part of society and thus involve partisanship.
(iii) They seek to implement policies and programmes of their agenda by winning popular support through election.
(iv) They are formed to promote the collective good through policies and programmes.

The major difference between pressure groups and political parties, pressure groups do not  aim to directly control or share political power

(i) This region is rich in the raw material needed to produce the steel such as iron ore, coal, limestone, etc.
(ii) These raw material are heavy and bulky therefore difficult and costly to transport to the plant.
(iii) This region has well connected railway lines which offter easy transportation of the finished products for their distribution to the markets and consumers.
(iv) This region gets its power supply from Damodar valley.
(v) Availability of cheap labour from surrounding regions.

Satyagraha is a method of agitation and protest based on truth and non-violence. It was first introduced by Mahatma Gandhi in the National Movement. The method was passive resistance, consisting of defiance of laws, non-payment of taxes, boycott of government institutions, etc.
First, Gandhiji applied Satyagraha in 1916 in Champaran district of Bihar to help the peasant against the unjust plantation owners. Then he organised Satyagraha in Kheda district of Gujarat in support of peasants in 1917 and also in Ahmedabad in favour of cotton mill workers in 1918.

A mineral is a homogenous, naturally occurring substance. It has definite chemical composition comprising of one or more elements.

The 1848 revolution is a revolution led by the educated middle classes of Europe.  The liberals supported political, social and economic ideas.
Political, Social and Economic Ideas supported by the Liberals
(a) Politically it stressed on the concept of representative government based on the approval of the people.
(b) Liberalism ended the autocracy and clerical privileges and encouraged supremacy of the people.
(c) Socially, it stressed equality of all before law and individual freedom.
(d) Economically it stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restriction on the goods and capital and inviolability of private property.

(a) From 1965 to 1972, the US-Vietnam War continued and caused losses to both US and Vietnam. The Vietnamese people suffered human and property losses, yet they never stopped their struggle for freedom. Here it is important to mention the role played by the porters in getting freedom and unity of Vietnam. The porters set out without fear on the Ho Chi Minh Trail which was a great expansive network of roads and footpaths. The heroic porters carried as much as 25 kg to 70 kg of weight on their backs or bicycles. They did not fear that they might fall over in the deep valleys. They bravely walked on the narrow, dangerous roads that marked the treacherous routes. They also did not feel afraid of being shot down by aircraft guns. They put all their fears aside and walked on to maintain the supply line. This fact showed that the porters were heroic and patriotic.
(b) The Vietnamese women played an important role in the US-Vietnam War. They were both warriors and workers. As warriors and soldiers, the Vietnamese women constructed six air strips, they neutralised thousands of bombs and went on to shoot down fifteen planes. There were 1.5 million Vietnamese women in the regular army, the militia, the local forces and professional teams. The women workers were also engaged as porters, nurses and construction workers.

The French revolutionaries took the following steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French people
(i) They introduced the ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen(the citizen), emphasising the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution.
(ii) They chose a new French flag, the tricolour, to replace the royal standard.
(iii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(iv) In the name of the nation, new hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated.
(v) They established a centralised administrative system, which formulated uniform laws for all citizens.
(vi) They adopted a uniform system of weights and measures.
(vii) All internal custom duties were abolished.
(viii) They promoted the French language, as spoken and written in Paris and discouraged regional dialects.
(ix) They declared that it was the mission and destiny of the French nation to liberate people of Europe from despotism. It is meant that they would help other people of Europe to become nation-states like them.