(i) Women as workers: Factories employed large number of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs and were forced to work within household. The 1861 census recorded a quarter of million domestic servants in London, of whom the vast majority were women, many of them recent migrants. A large number of women used their homes to increase family income by raking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. However, there was a change once again in the twentieth century. As women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.
(ii) Women and conservatives: Men and women did not have equal access to this new urban space. As women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed against their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve and the domestic sphere was seen as the proper place for women.
(iii) Women and political movements: Most political movements of the nineteenth century, such as Chartism (a movement demanding the vote for all adult males and the 10-hour movement limiting hours of work in factories), mobilised large number of men. Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or fore married women's rights to property (from the 1870s) ,
(iv) Women and ware time: The two- world wars of the 20th century once again transformed the life of women. They were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.

(i) Women as workers: Factories employed large number of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs and were forced to work within household. The 1861 census recorded a quarter of million domestic servants in London, of whom the vast majority were women, many of them recent migrants. A large number of women used their homes to increase family income by raking in lodgers or through such activities as tailoring, washing or matchbox making. However, there was a change once again in the twentieth century. As women got employment in wartime industries and offices, they withdrew from domestic service.
(ii) Women and conservatives: Men and women did no have equal access to this new urban space. As women lost their industrial jobs and conservative people railed gainst their presence in public spaces, women were forced to withdraw into their homes. The public space became increasingly a male preserve and the domestic sphere was seen as the proper place for women.
(iii) Women and political movements: Most political movements of the nineteenth century, such as Chartism (a movement demanding the vote for all adult males and the 10-hour movement limiting hours of work in factories), mobilised large number of men. Only gradually did women come to participate in political movements for suffrage that demanded the right to vote for women or fore married women's rights to property (from the 1870s) ,
(iv) Women and ware time: The two-world wars of the 20th century once again transformed the life of women. They were employed in large numbers to meet war demands.

(i) The dry encouraged spirit of Individualism
(ii) The public space became increasingly a male preserve and the domestic sphere was seen as the proper place for women.
(iii) Gradually women came to participate in the political movement for suffrage.
Values of rural life:
(i) Rural life was based on collective values.
(ii) Communities were interdependent

(i) Calcutta or Kolkata had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the cry was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate a thick black smog.
(ii) Burning of dung and wood fuel were the main sources of air pollution.
(iii) Colonial authorities at first intended to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours , but the railway lines introduced in 185, brought a dangerous new pollutant into the picture - coal from Ranging. The high content of ash in the Indian coal was a problem. Many place were made to banish the dirty mills from the city, but without any results.
(iv) Calcutta (Kolkata) was the first city to get smoke nuisance legislation in 1863.
(v) The inspectors of the Bengal smoke Nuisance Commission finally managed to control the industrial smoke. Controlling domestic smoke, however, was for more difficult.

(i) Calcutta or Kolkata had a long history of air pollution. Its inhabitants inhaled grey smoke, particularly in the winter. Since the cry was built on marshy land, the resulting fog combined with smoke to generate a thick black smog.
(ii) Burning of dung and wood fuel were the main sources of air pollution.
(iii) Colonial authorities at first intended to clear the place of miasmas, or harmful vapours , but the railway lines introduced in 185, brought a dangerous new pollutant into the picture - coal from Ranging. The high content of ash in the Indian  coal was a problem. many place were made to banish the dirty mills from the city, but without any results.
(iv) Calcutta (Kolkata) was the first city to get smoke nuisance legislation in 1863.
(v) The inspectors of the Bengal smoke Nuisance Commission finally managed to control the industrial smoke. Controlling domestic smoke, however, was for more difficult.

(i) Urbanisation has caused a great threat to ecology and the environment.
(ii) It has been formed at the expense of ecology and the environment.
(iii) Natural features have been demolished for providing space for factories, houses and other institutions.
(iv) Large quantities of waste products pollute air, water and soil and excessive noise becomes a feature of urban life.  
(v) To check the pollution, the government imposes regulation and passes new laws.
(vi) But government regulation and new laws cannot solve problems of pollution until people do not give a positive response to them.
Examples of Success and Failure of Legislation to Change the Quality of Public as well as Private Life
(i) The use of coal in homes and industries raised the problems of pollution.
   (a) Industrial cities such as Bradford, Leeds etc having factories let out smoke into the skies which caused bad tempers, diseases.
   (b) So people joined together to campaign for cleaner air by using new technology and decided to control the nuisance through legislation.
   (c) But the factory owners were not ready to spend on new technology
   (d) Moreover, the Smoke Abatement Acts of 1847 and 1953 did not always work to clean the air.
(ii) The people of Kolkata inhaled grey smoke.
   (a) Since the city was built in marshy land, the combination of smoke and fog during winters created thick fog 
   (b) The high content of ash was a problem.
   (c) In 1863, Kolkata became the 1st Indian city to get smoke nuisance legislation.
(iii) The rice mills of Tollygunge
   (a) The rice mill of Tollygunge began burn rice husk instead of coal which filled air with black soot.
   (b) It was difficult for the residents to live.
   (c) The inspector of the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Commission managed to control industrial smoke.
   (d) But controlling smoke was difficult.

Meaning of Haussmanisation
(i) Baron Haussmann was the chief architect of the French empire.
(ii) Louis Napoleon ordered him to construct a new city of Paris for 17 years.
(iii) He designed straight, broad avenues and transplanted full - grown trees.
(iv) Many policemen, night patrols were employed.
(v) Bus shelters and tap water were introduced.
(vi) This rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann is known as Haussmanisation of Paris. 
Arguments in Support of the Haussmanisation
(i) The new capital built by Baron Haussmann became the center of much new architectural, social and intellectual development.
(ii) Haussmanisation provided employment to a large number of people.
Arguments in Opposition of the Haussmanisation
(i) The poor driven out from the centre of Paris to reduce the possibility of political rebellion and to beautify the city. (ii) Some lamented the passing of an earlier way of life and the development of an upper class culture.
(iii) Some felt that Haussmann had made an empty boring city.
A Letter to the Editor of a Newspaper
(i) Now write a letter to the editor by using the above description yourself

The well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for the poor in the 19^th century because of the following reasons:
(i) Many people occupied in a single room were over crowded, badly ventilated and lacked sanitation.
(ii) There were worries about hazards created by poor housing.
(ii) There was a widespread fear of social disorder.

(i) A private landlord
(ii) A police superintendent in charge of law and order
(iii) A leader of a political party Effect on a private landlord
(a) The existence of a large urban population supports a private landlord.
(b) He sells his lands to the needy people at very high rates.
(c) He constructs cheap house and charges high rent.
(d) When industrialization took place in England, a large number of rural people settled in London.
(e) So the population increases which supported the private landlords.
(f) Effect of a police superintendent in charge of law and order
(g) The existence of a large number of populations creates law and order problem.
(h) It increases crime rate which worries the superintendent who is incharge of law and order.
(i) He maintains strict discipline.
(j) In 1870s the law and order were worst in London due to lot of crimes such as theft, robbers, pick pockets etc.
(k) The superintendent counted the population of criminals, watched their activities and investigated their way of life. Effect of a leader of a political party
(a) A political leader can easily draw the crowds into political causes.
(b) He agitated the people against government.
(c) He asks the labour class people to form a trade union.
(d) He demands labourers for his own factory.
(e) He leads processions against the government with the help of these people.
(f) Examples - London Poor's strike in 1886 and London's dock - workers strike in 1889.

Two reasons for its expansion were the following:
(1) Though there were no large factories in London, it attracted migrant population in great numbers.
(2) There were 5 major types of industries such as clothing, footwear, wood and furniture, metals and engineering, printing and stationary which need a large number of people.

Two reasons for its expansion were the following:
(1) Though there were no large factories in London, it attracted migrant population in great numbers.
(2) There were 5 major types of industries such as clothing, footwear, wood and furniture, metals and engineering, printing and stationary which need a large number of people.