Italy was politically fragmented into seven states for a long period. The north Italy was ruled by Austria, while the Bourbon dynasty ruled in the south and Pope dominated over the central Italy. It was only Sardinia-Piedmont which was ruled by the Italian unification were:
(a) Giuseppe Mazzini: During the 1830s, Mazzini devised efforts to unite Italy, but he failed. He formed a secret society i.e. Young Italy in 1831 which intended to fulfill his goals. He believed that the nations are the natural units of mankind.
(b) Count Cavour: He was the Italian Chief Minister who unified the regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He spoke French and with his tactful diplomacy sought the help of France in defeating Austrian forces in 1859.
(c) Giuseppe Garibaldi: He collected a large number of armed volunteers and joined the regular troops. He succeeded in winning the support of local peasants and drove the Spanish away.

(i) The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. In 1789, France was under the rule of an absolute monarch.
(ii) When the revolutionaries came to power in France, they were determined to create a new sense of unit and nationhood. For this, they emphasized the concept of France being the father land (La Patrie) for all French people, who were from now on addressed as citizens (citoyen). They were given the tri-colour flag, the three colours representing liberty, equality and fraternity.
French revolutionaries introduced various other measures such as:
(a) The Estate General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(b) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.
(c) A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
(d) Internal customs, duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. (e) Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
(f) They further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the people of Europe from despotism and help them to become nations.

(i) The Revolution of the Liberals (1848) was led by the educated middle class.

(ii) In France it brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.

(iii) In Germany, Italy, Poland and Austro-Hungarian empire, the liberal middle class demanded constitutionalism with national unification.

The 1848 revolution is a revolution led by the educated middle classes of Europe.  The liberals supported political, social and economic ideas.
Political, Social and Economic Ideas supported by the Liberals
(a) Politically it stressed on the concept of representative government based on the approval of the people.
(b) Liberalism ended the autocracy and clerical privileges and encouraged supremacy of the people.
(c) Socially, it stressed equality of all before law and individual freedom.
(d) Economically it stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restriction on the goods and capital and inviolability of private property.

The Frankfurt Parliament, which was convened in the church of St Paul on 18th May, 1848, was the first major step, towards the unification of german states. Otto von Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, carried out the process of unification with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy. The building process of Germany after 1848
(i) The liberal initiatives of nation building were repressed by the monarchy and big landlords of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took the initiative to unify Germany.
(ii) There were widespread nationalist feelings among middle-class Germans, who in 1848, tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a Nation-state.
(iii) Bismarck was convinced that the unification of Germany could be only achieved by the princes, not by the common people. He wanted to achieve his aim by merging Prussia into Germany. In 1867, Bismarck became the Chancellor of the North Confederation.
(iv) Bismarck's main objective was to unify Germany and was accomplished by three wars with Austria, Denmark and France which were fought in a brief period of seven years. These wars were ended with the victory of Prussia which helped in completing the process of German unification.
(v) On 18th January, 1871, in the Royal Palace of Versailles, the king of Prussia, Kaiser William I was crowned as the German Emperor. It symbolised the birth of a United Germany.

The Art of Union 1707 resulted in the formation of United Kingdom of Great Britain with the incorporation of Scotland.

The main objective of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was to undo the changes brought about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.

Marianne Characteristics were the red cap , the tricolour , the cockade.

The nationalists of Greece were supported by the West European Countries.

Conservatism was adopted by the European governments after defeating Napoleon in 1815. They favoured it to preserve the established traditional institutions of state and society like monarchy, church, social hierarchies institutions of state and society like monarchy, church, social hierarchies, property and family. There were some who did not want to adopt the pre-revolutionary system, rather they favoured Napoleonic changes and wanted to adopt modernisation as it would rather contribute to strength traditional institutions and state power and make it much more effective. Conservatives began to believe that aristocratic monarchies if Europe too would be strengthen from a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom.

The feeling of clear-cut expression of nationalism or collective identity came to France with the French Revolution in 1789. Political and constitutional changes led to the transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to a body of French citizens. Various measures and practices were introduced by French revolutionaries which proclaimed that a nation is made by its people and only they can shape up its destiny. Concept of a community, which is united under one flag and enjoying equal rights, came to create a feeling of collective identity among the French people.
(a) The ideas of la Patrie (the fatherland) and le Citoyen (the citizen?) emphasised this notion.
(b) The tricolor, new French flag, was replaced by the royal standard.
(c) Uniform laws were formulated for all its citizens under a centralised administrative system.
(d) The body of active citizens elected the Estates General and it was renamed National Assembly.
(e) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.

During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, the centre by the Pope and the southern regions by the Bourbon kings of Spain. Italian language had varieties of dialects; therefore, it was not stable in its form. During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called 'Young Italy' for the dissemination of his goals. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war. A unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance. Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. With a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. In 1859, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, Sardinia- Piedmont's forces marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.

During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, the centre by the Pope and the southern regions by the Bourbon kings of Spain. Italian language had varieties of dialects; therefore, it was not stable in its form. During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also formed a secret society called 'Young Italy' for the dissemination of his goals. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war. A unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance. Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. With a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. In 1859, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, Sardinia- Piedmont's forces marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared as the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.