(a) i. Prospectus issue
ii. Issue through intermediaries:
iii. Private placement:
iv. Rights issue: 
(b)
The methods of floating new issues in the primary market are:
(i) Offer Through Prospectus: It is the method of floating new issues by inviting subscriptions from the public through issue of prospectus.
(ii) Offer for Sale: It is the method in which the securities are not issued directly to the public but through intermediaries like issuing houses or stock brokers.
(iii) Private Placement: It refers to the allotment of securities by a company to institutional investors and some selected individuals.
(iv) Rights Issue: It is the privilege given to existing shareholders to subscribe to new issue of shares in proportion to the number of shares they already hold.
(v) e-IPO: It refers to issuing securities through the online system of stock exchange.
(c) The main investors in the primary market are banks, financial institutions insurance companies , mutual funds and individuals.

Main functions of stock exchange are as follows
(i) Pricing of securities The stock market helps to value the securitics on the basis of demand and supply factors. Higher the demand for such securities, higher is their value. The valuation of securities is useful for investors, government and creditors.
(ii) Contributes to economic growth In stock exchange, securities of various companies are bought and sold. This process of disinvestment and reinvestment helps to invest in most productive investment proposal and this leads to capital formation and economic growth.
(iii) Spreading of equity cult Stock exchange encourages people to invest in ownership securities by regulating new issues, better trading practices and by educating people about investment.
(iv) Liquidity The main function of stock market is to provide ready market for sale and purchase of securities which assures the investors that their investment can be converted into cash whenever they want.
(v) Safety of transaction The stock exchange is well regulated and its dealings are well defined according to the existing legal framework. This ensures that the investing public gets a safe and fair deal in the market.

(i) 1. Regulatory and protective functions
(i) Registration of brokers, sub-brokers and other players in the market.
(ii) Registration of collective investment schemes and mutual funds.
(iii) Regulation of stock brokers, portfolio exchanges, underwriters and merchant bankers and the business in stock exchanges.
(iv) Regulation of takeover bids by companies.
(v) Levying fee or other charges for carrying out the purposes of the Act.
(vi) SEBI conducts inspections, enquiries and audits of stock exchanges.
(vii) Perform and exercise such power under Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act 1956, as may be delegated by the government of India.
2.Protective Functions
(i) Prohibition of fraudulent and unfair trade practices.
(ii) Controlling insider trading and imposing penalties for such practices.
(iii) Undertaking steps for investor protection.
(iv) Promotion of fair practices and code of conduct in securities market.
(ii) The values which SEBI fulfils are:
(a) Safety.
 (b) Transparency.
(c) Fairness.

Malpractices such as existence of self-styled merchant bankers, unofficial private placements, rigging of prices, unofficial premium on new issues, non-adherence of provisions of the Companies Act, violation of rules and regulations of stock exchanges and listing requirements, delay in delivery of shares, etc. had eroded investors' confidence and multiplied investor grievances. In order to fight with such problems, government established SEBI as a separate regulatory body.
Regulatory Functions
(i) Registration of brokers, sub-brokers and other players in the market.
(ii) Registration of collective investment schemes and mutual funds.
(iii) Regulation of stock brokers, portfolio exchanges, underwriters and merchant bankers and the business in stock exchanges.
(iv) Regulation of takeover bids by companies.
(v) Levying fee or other charges for carrying out the purposes of the Act.
(vi) SEBI conducts inspections, enquiries and audits of stock exchanges.
(vii) Perform and exercise such power under Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act 1956, as may be delegated by the government of India.

Trading procedure on a stock exchange.
(i) Selection of a Broker
The first step is to select a broker, who will buy/sell securities on behalf of the speculator/investor. This is necessary because trading of securities can only be done through SEBI registered brokers, who are members of stock exchange. Brokers may be individuals, partnership firms and corporate bodies.
(ii) Opening Demat Account with Depository
The next step is to open a Demat account. Demat(Dematerialised) account refers to an account which an Indian citizen must open with the depository participant(bank and stock brokers) to trade in listed securities in electronic form. The securities are held in the electronic form by a depository.' Depository' is an institution/organization which holds securities (e.g. shares, debentures, bonds, mutual funds, etc) in electronic form, in which trading is done.
(iii) Placing the Order
The next step is to place the order with the broker. The order can be communicated to the broker either personally or through telephone, cell phone, email, etc.
The instructions should specify the securities to be bought or sold and the price range within which the order is to be executed. Only the securities of listed companies can be traded on the stock exchange.
(iv) Executing the order
According to the instructions of the investor, the broker buys or sells securities. The broker then issues a contract note. A copy of the contract note contains the name and the price of securities, names of the parties, brokerage charges, etc. It is duly signed by the broker.
(v) Settlement
This is the last stage in the trading of securities done by the brokers on behalf of their clients. the mode of settlement depends upon the nature of the contract. Equity spot markets follow a T+2 rolling settlement.
This means that any trade taking place on Monday gets settled by Wednesday. The stock exchange operates from Monday to Friday between 9:55 am and 3:30 pm. Each exchange has its own clearing house, which assumes all settlement risk.

The stock exchange is an institution, which provides a platform for buying and selling of existing securities.
Functions of Stock Exchange
(i) Provides liquidity and marketability to existing securities
The primary function of a stock exchange is to provide a ready and continuous market where existing securities can be bought and sold.
This provides both liquidity and cash marketability to already existing securities in the market.
(ii) Pricing of securities
Share prices on a stock exchange are determined by the forces of demand and supply.Stock market indices like SENSEX, NSE, etc reflect market direction and indicate day-to-day fluctuations in share prices.
Thus, both buyers and sellers can get constant information about price movements of shares in the market.
(iii) Safety of transactions
The membership of a stock exchange is well defined according to the existing legal framework. This ensures that the investment of public is safe and they will get a fair deal in the market.
(iv) Contributes to economic growth
In stock exchange. the process of disinvestment and reinvestment channelise the savings into productive investment avenues. This leads to capital formation and economic growth
(v) Spreading Equity Cult
It is an organised market, which takes various steps to guide and educate investors, publish information about companies listed on the exchange and ensures better and safe trading practices. These practices have played a vital role in increasing the number of people investing in equity, thus leading to wider ownership of equity.
(vi) Provides Scope for Speculation
It is generally accepted that a certain degree of speculation is necessary to ensure liquidity and price continuity in the stock market. Thus, it provides sufficient scope for speculation in a restricted and controlled manner within the provisions of law.

The stock exchange is an institution, which provides a platform for buying and selling of existing securities.
Functions of Stock Exchange
(i) Provides liquidity and marketability to existing securities
The primary function of a stock exchange is to provide a ready and continuous market where existing securities can be bought and sold.
This provides both liquidity and cash marketability to already existing securities in the market.
(ii) Pricing of securities
Share prices on a stock exchange are determined by the forces of demand and supply.Stock market indices like SENSEX, NSE, etc reflect market direction and indicate day-to-day fluctuations in share prices.
Thus, both buyers and sellers can get constant information about price movements of shares in the market.
(iii) Safety of transactions
The membership of a stock exchange is well defined according to the existing legal framework. This ensures that the investment of public is safe and they will get a fair deal in the market.
(iv) Contributes to economic growth
In stock exchange. the process of disinvestment and reinvestment channelise the savings into productive investment avenues. This leads to capital formation and economic growth
(v) Spreading Equity Cult
It is an organised market, which takes various steps to guide and educate investors, publish information about companies listed on the exchange and ensures better and safe trading practices. These practices have played a vital role in increasing the number of people investing in equity, thus leading to wider ownership of equity.
(vi) Provides Scope for Speculation
It is generally accepted that a certain degree of speculation is necessary to ensure liquidity and price continuity in the stock market. Thus, it provides sufficient scope for speculation in a restricted and controlled manner within the provisions of law.

The four main objectives of NSE are :-
a) Establishing nation wide trading facility for all types of securities.
b) To provide equal access to investors all over the country.
c) A transparent and efficient system of trading provided.
d) It help in meeting international standards and benchmarks

Commercial paper is a source of bridge financing. Bridge financing refers to short term funds for seasonal and working capital needs. Le it may be used as an associated source of financing. If a company needs long term finance buy machinery it must raise these finds from the capital market. For this company must incur floatation costs – brokerage commission funds used to finance such needs over called bridge financing.