Hermaphrodites are those bisexual organisms which posses both male and female reproductive organs in the same body, e.g. Tapeworm and earthworm.

1. Marchantia is dioecious, because an individual plant of Marchantia bears exclusively either male or female sex organs.
2. The male sex organs are borne on the antheridiophores and female sex organs on archegoniophores.

1. Pre-fertilisation events are those events of sexual reproduction that occur prior to fusion of gametes (syngamy).
2. Gametogenesis and gamete transfer are the two major pre-fertilisation events.

(i) In mullticellular organisms, cells/ tissues are specialised for various functions; the function of reproduction is performed by one group of speciallised cells.
(ii) Not all cells of a multicellular organism retains the power of division at maturity; the cells which retain the power of division are localised and they alone can help in reproduction.

No, there is no relationship between the size of an organisms and its lifespan, e.g.
1. The size of crows and parrots is almost same, but the lifespan of crows is 15 years while that of parrots is 140 years.
2. A mango tree has a much shorter lifespan, compared to a peepal tree, though they both are of similar size.

(i) Cucurbits are monoecious.
(ii) Date palm is dioecious and some of the plants bear exclusively pistillate flowers.

1. In haploid organisms, showing haplontic life cycle, gamete formation involves only mitosis; the diploid zygote formed by the fusion of two haploid gametes, undergoes meiosis (zygotic meiosis).
2. In diploid organisms, showing diplontic or haplodiplontic life cycle, gamete formation involues meiosis (gametic meiosis) and haploid gametes are formedl; the diploid zygote undergoes mitosis to form diploid individuals.

Role of tapetum in the pollen grain wall formation
During microsporogenesis, the cells of tapetum provide various enzymes, hormones, amino acids and other nutritive materials to the dividing microsporocytes. The main functions of tapetum are:
1. Transportation of nutrients into anther locule at the time of meiosis in spore mother cells.
2. Secretion of enzymes and hormones.
3. Production of Ubisch bodies which are coated with sporopollenin to cause thickening of exine.
4. Secretion of any oily material (pollen kit) over outerside of mature pollen.
5. Secretion of special proteins for pollen to recognise compatibility.

(a) (i) The polarity of the cutting would not have been correct.
(ii) It can be due to absence of buds.
(iii) The cutting may have been selected from a very old branch.
(b) (i) The cutting must be selected from a branch that is neither very old nor very young.
(ii) There should be enough number of buds.
(iii) The polarity of the cutting should be considered.
(iv) The season of growing must be properly selected.
(c) Bougainvillea, china rose, cotton, etc.(any two)
(d) Shanu's concern for fellow citizen and use of his knowledge for the benefit of the society

Those vegetative structures of plants which are capable of giving rise to new individuals/plants, are called vegetative propagules, e.g.. Runner -  Oxalis.