The Janas who migrated eastwards began to settle down in various regions. The loyalty of the people shifted from jana (tribe or clan) to Janapada (territory). Janapada literally meant the place where the tribe sets its foot upon.

Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi and Dholavira are the Indian sites.

• The Europeans were quite aware of the wealth and power of the Mughals, and English poets even wrote about the fabulous "wealth of India".
• Travellers from all parts of Europe visited India regularly during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
• The journals of their travels present a detailed contemporary account of the empire and society in India.

May 1761 Puli Thevar's three major forts namely Nerkattumseval, Vasudevanallur and Panayur came under the control of Yusuf Khan

Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% of the revenue which Shivaji collected by virtue of his position as Sardeshmukh.
Sardeshinukh was the superior head of many Desais or Deshmukhs. Shivaji claimed that he was the hereditary

• According to the treaty of Srirangapatnam, the Tipu was to give up half of his dominions, pay three crores of rupees as indemnity, and pledge two of his sons as hostages.
• The allies were given equal shares of the indemnity and of the ceded territories

1. After defeating the Shahi king Anandapala, Mahmud went beyond Punjab, penetrating deep into the Indo-Gangetic plain.
2. Before reaching Kanauj, Mahmud raided Mathura. In later historiography, of both the British and Indian nationalists, Mahmud is notorious for his invasion of the temple city of Somnath (1025) on the seashore in Gujarat.

Allahabad Pillar inscription - describing Samudragupta's personality and achievements in 33 lines composed by Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit in Nagari script.

1. It marked the beginning of the interaction between India and the West, which spanned many centuries to follow.
2. Greek governors and kings ruled in the north-western region of India, which introduced new styles of art and governance.

The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks about the lands and gods of the people speaking the Indo-Iranian languages.

i) An important aspect of Islam in India was its early acceptance of a long-term coexistence with Hinduism, despite all the violence that occurred in military campaigns, conquests and depredations.
ii) The conqueror Muizzuddin of Ghor had, on some of his gold coins, stamped the image of the goddess Lakshmi.
iii) Muhammad Tughlaq in 1325 issued a farman enjoining that protection be extended by all officers to Jain priests; he himself played holi and consorted with yogis.
iv) The historian Barani noted with some bitterness how 'the kings of Islam' showed respect to 'Hindus, Mongols, Polytheists and infidels, by making them sit on masnad (cushions) and
v) By honouring them in other ways, and how the Hindus upon paying taxes (jiziya-o- kharaj) were allowed to have their temples and celebrations, employ Muslim servants, and flaunt their titles(rai, rana, thakur, sah, mahta, pandit, etc), right in the capital seats of Muslim rulers.

1. The period between the Guptas and the Vardhanas saw many independent principalities. North India lacked a strong central power.
2. The Huns, Maithrakas of Valabhi, Maukharis of Kanauj, Yasodharman of Mandasor, Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar and Later Guptas of Magadha were subregional kingdoms.
3. Harsha subdued the minor powers and became the king ofThanesar and Kanauj. His authority and control prevailed over Bengal, Kamarupa, Valabhi, Sind, Nepal and Kashmir.
4. Harsha maintained cordial relations with China and the Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang recorded the socio-religious conditions of the people of that period.
5. Harsha patronised Buddhism and convened Buddhist assemblies at Kanauj and Prayag.

1. Seals and inscriptions mention military designations such as baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry).
2. The standard term "senapat" does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term could be found in some Vakataka epigraphs.
2. A Vaishali seal mentions the ranabhandagar-adhikarana, which is the office of the military storehouse.
3. Another Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana (office) of the dandapashika, which, may have been a district-level police office.

1. Tamil texts including the Sangam and post-Sangam literature
2. The Arthasastra, the treatise on economy and statecraft authored by Kautilya
3. The Puranas which mention the genealogy of the Andhras/Satavahanas
4. Buddhist Chronicles such as Mahavamsa.
5. Gatha Saptasati, a Prakrit text composed by the Satavahana king Hala

There are linguistic similarities between Rig Veda and Avesta. The term Aryas was also used by the ancient Persians. Accordingto Indologist Thomas Burrow,only phonetic change had occurred overtime. The Bogaz Koi (in North-East Syria) Inscription dating back to 1380 BCE records a treaty between a Hittite and a Mitanni King. It mentions the names of a few Rig Vedic gods such as Indara, Uruvna (Varuna), Mitira and Nasatiya (Ashvins). Since it supports the information gathered from other contemporary sources about Chandragupta. It is important to note from both these sources that the fame of Chandragupta had survived long after lie was gone and became imbibed in popular lore and memory.

Paiyampalli is a village in Tirupathur taluk, Vellore district. The Archaeological Survey of India carried out an excavation in the 1960s and unearthed black and red ware pottery in this megalithic site. A large number of urn burials were also found in this region. The date of this culture, based on radio carbon dating, is 1000 BCE.

1. An interesting find is of a possible shrine, indicated by a block of sandstone surrounded by a rubble circle, similar to the contemporary shrines. Found at Baghor in Uttar Pradesh, it is the earliest known evidence of a shrine in India.
Write a note on Mesolithic sites in India
Mesolithic sites in India are found in Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama (all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka). Rock shelter sites are found in Lekhakia, Baghai Khor, Adamgarh and Bhimbetka. Coastal sites are seen at Mumbai, Teri sites of Thoothukudyin TamilNadu and Vishakapatnam, which have microlithic evidence.
Give a evidence for the farnaul.
1. The faunal evidence from this period shows that people belonging to this period hunted cattle, gaur, buffalo, barasingha, porcupines, sambar, chital, gazelle, hog deer, nilgai, jackal, turtle, fish, wild hare, lizard fox and monitor lizard. Bones of rhinoceros and elephant have also been found. They used spears, bow and arrow and traps. The paintings of Bhimbetka show that various animals were hunted and for this men and women went together.
2. The people used fire and perhaps roasted food. Domestic animal bones of cattle, sheep, goats, pig and dog have been found at Kanewal, Loteshwar and Ratanpur, and from Adamgarh and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh sites. Camel bones have been found from Kanewal.
Write a note on Early Dentistry in the Neolithic Mehrgarh
1. The human ancestors had knowledge of medicinal herbs and were capable of taking care of health for survival from the pre-historic times. As their ways of life changed, new diseases appeared and they had to find remedies.
2. From the Neolithic period, people began to eat ground grain and cooked food, which caused dental and other health problems. The earliest evidence for drilling human tooth (of a living person) has been found at Mehrgarh. It is seen as a prelude to dentistry.
Write an note on Geographical Area and the Settlements
The Indus civilisation and the contemporary cultures covered nearly 1.5 million sq. km area in India and Pakistan. The settlements of Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan- Iran border; Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north; Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh; India) in the east and Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation. Its core area was in the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.
Write an note on Indus Civilisation and Tamil Civilisation
1. The Indus Civilisation represents the first urbanisation of Indian history.
2. The origin and authorship of the Indus Civilisation are keenly debated historical questions. The Indus script has not yet been conclusively deciphered and hence the authorship is not certain. The graffiti found on the megalithic burial pots of South India and the place names presented are cited to establish the relationship between Indus and Tamil cultures.
3. The archaeological evidence points to several groups of people living in Tamil Nadu and South India continuously from the Mesolithic period. One cannot rule out the migration of a few groups from the Indus region. More research is necessary before arriving at any definite conclusion.
4. The towns of ancient Tamizhagam such as Arikamedu, Keezhadi and Uraiyur that flourished are part of the second urbanisation of India and these towns are quite different from the Indus cities.
 

Sher Shah's Reforms
1. When Sher Shah was pursuing Humayun, he had left Khizr Khan as the Governor of Bengal.
2. Khizr Khan married the daughter of the former ruler of Bengal, Sultan Mahmud, and started behaving like a king.
3. On his return Sher Shah ordered him to be put in chains.
4. As one familiar with the problem of provincial insubordination, he thought that the real solution to the problem would be to set up a strong administrative system.
5. So he made his government highly centralised. 
6. The local administrative structure of the Delhi Sultanate was followed with certain changes.
7. The village headmen who were made responsible for the goods stolen within the area under their control became vigilant.
8. The welfare of the peasants was a prime concern.
9. When the peasant is ruined, Sher Shah believed, the king is ruined.
10. Sher Shah took great care that the movements of the army did not damage crops.
11. He followed a flexible revenue system.
12. Land was surveyed and revenue settled according to the fertility of the soil.
13. In some areas, the jagirdari and zamindari systems were allowed to continue.

The Amatya or finance minister checked and countersigned all public accounts of the kingdom
The Walkia-Nawis or Mantrimaintained the records of the king's activities and the proceedings in the court.
Summant or Dabir or foreign secretary was to advise king on all matters of war and peace and to receive ambassadors and envoys from other countries.
Sachiv or Shuru Nawis or home secretary was to look after the correspondence of the king with the power to revise the drafts. He also checked the accounts of the Parganas.
Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha or Sadar and Muhtasib or ecclesiastical head was in charge of religion, ceremonies and charities. He was the judge of canon law and censor of public morals.
Nyayadhish or chief justice was responsible for civil and military justice
Sari Naubat or commander-in-chief was in charge of recruitment, organization and discipline of the Army.

1. The bhakti reformers preached the principles of monotheism (oneness of God)
2. They believed in freedom from the cycle of life and death. They advocated that the salvation could be attained only by deep devotion and faith in God.
3. They emphasized the self-surrender for obtaining the bliss and grace of God.
4. Gurus could act as guides and preceptors.
5. They advocated the principle of Universal brotherhood.
6. They criticized idol worship.
7. They stressed the singing of hymns with deep devotion.
8. Arguing that all living beings, including humans, were god's children they strongly denounced caste system which divided people according to their birth.
9. They condemned ritualism, pilgrimages and fasts.
10 They did not consider any language as sacred and composed poems in the language of the common people.

1. The Pallavas had maritime trade with south-east Asia, where by now there were three major kingdoms: Kambuja (Cambodia), Champa (Annam), and Srivijaya (the southern Malaya peninsula and Sumatra).
2. On the west coast, the initiative in the trade with the West was gradually passing into the hands of the foreign traders settled along the coast, mainly Arabs.
3. Indian traders were becoming suppliers of goods rather than carriers of goods to foreign countries, and communication with the west became indirect, via Arabs, and limited to trade alone.

1. Around the first century CE, the Satavahana kingdom was established in the Deccan area, comprising the modern states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
2. This, however, was not like the centralised empire of the Mauryas, and the provincial governors of the Satavahanas had a considerable degree of autonomy.
3. The second development was the discovery of the pattern of monsoon winds in the Arabian Sea in the first century CE by Hippalus, an Egyptian sailor.
4. A first century CE account in Greek, the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), is the most reliable source of information on the ports of the Indian coast and trade.
5. Archaeological findings confirm the information from all these sources.

1. Right Views;
2. Right Resolve;
3. Right Speech;
4. Right Conduct;
5. Right Livelihood;
6. Right Effort;
7. Right Recollection;
8. Right Meditation.

The burial system followed by the people of Neolithic period continued into the Megalithic period. A circular tomb using big stone slabs built upon the place of burial is known as a megalith. Such megaliths have been found in many parts of Tamilnadu .
i) The urn burial system was another type of practice and is evidenced in Adichanallur (present Thoothukudi district
ii) Brahmi writing akin to Ashokan Brahmi has been discovered in Kodumanal (Erode District).
iii) Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, datable to third to second centuries BCE found in the upper part of the Vaigai valley.
iv) Paiyampalli is a village in Tirupathur taluk, Vellore district. Kodumanal, 40 km from Erode, is located on the northern bank of Noyyal river, a tributary of the Cauvery.

i) Paddy as tax was collected by a unit called kalam (28 kg).
ii) Rajaraja I standardised the collection of tax.
iii) He collected 100 kalam from the land of one veli (about 6.5 acres); the standard veli being variable according to fertility of the soil and the number of crops raised.

Harsha subdued the minor powers and became the king of Thanesar and Kanauj. His authority and control prevailed over Bengal, Kamarupa, Valabhi, Sind, Nepal and Kashmir.

The advent of these tribes in India arose as a result of a complex sequence of migrations and political developments in Central Asia.

• The Mysore king Chamaraj IX died in 1796. Tipu resolved not to observe the formality of appointing a king.
• Synchronizing with this resolve came the announcement of the French colonial governor of Mauritius General Malartic that, after obtaining French help, he would declare war on the English.
• In July 1798 Tipu's correspondence with the French Directory and later with Napoleon and his evasiveness in his correspondence with Wellesley led to his declaration of war against Tipu

1. Dadabhai Naoroji in his Poverty and Un- British Rule in India explained how the English rulers were different from the earlier invaders.
2. He said, in the case of former foreign invaders, they plundered and went back.
3. They made, no doubt, great wounds, but India, with her industry, revived and healed the wounds.

In July 1658, Aurangzeb ascended the throne as the Emperor.
Shaista Khan was appointed the Governor of the Deccan in 1660 with the main purpose of crushingShivaji.
Shivaji hit upon a bold plan. He entered Poona at night with 400 soldiers in the form of a marriage party and attacked the home of Shaista Khan.
Aurangzeb was forced to recall Shaista Khan from the Deccan in December 1663.

1. Artisans like weavers, smiths, and masons became more prominent in the society.
2. These non-agrarian groups were generally called the pattadaior (workshop people) and kasaya-vargam -that is- the group that pays taxes in cash.

• The National Social Conference organized at the initiative of M.G. Ranade met each year immediately after the Indian National Congress (1885) annual sessions.
• Justice Ranade was an erudite scholar with a keen intellect and under his able guidance, the Prarthana Samaj became the active center of a new social reformation in western India.
• He was one of the founders of the Widow Marriage Association and was an ardent promoter of the famous Deccan Education Society.
• Its object was to impart such education to the young as would fit them for the unselfish service of the country.
• When Ranade died in 1901, his leadership was taken over by Chandavarkar.

1. They are square-shaped except Kailasanatha cave (cave-16), which is a massive monolithic structure, carved out of a single solid rock.
2. This temple is said to represent Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva. The temple is two storeyed and the Kailasa temple is on the first one.
3. The lower storey has carved life-size elephants, which looks like they are holding up the temple on their backs.
4. The temple exterior has richly carved windows, images of deities from the Hindu scriptures and Mithunas (amorous male and female figures).