The fibres of sclerenchyma associated with phloem are called phloem fibres or Bast fibres. They are narrow, vertically elongated and have small lumen. It Is the only dead tissue in phloem. They give support.

Scarification: Mechanical and chemical treatments like cutting or chipping of hard tough seed coat and use of organic solvents to remove waxy or fatty compounds are called as Scarification. It is a method of breaking dormancy of seeds.

1. Papilionaceous is made up of five distinct petals organized in a butterfly shape. Corolla has three types of petals. 
2. One usually large posterior petal called vexillum(standard)two lateral petals- wings (alae) and two anterior sympetalous petals called carina.
3. Example: Clitoria ternatea, Pea, Bean.

Exocoetus, Labeo, Catla, Echeneis, Pterophyllum.

1. Queen bee
2. Nuptial flight

Economic importance of prawn:
(i) Prawn is a very tasty proteinaceous food.
(ii) Economic growth can be achieved by prawn at a low cost.
(iii) It is profitable to cultivate prawns in fresh water at a low cost.
(iv) By Exporting prawns can also bring a lot of foreign currency to the country.

The muscle contracts when the myosin shifts. The lack of ATP after death prevents it from relaxing and the muscle remains contracted. Such process occurs in all muscles and the body becomes rigid.

Venules, veins of renal vein comes out of hilum of kidneys.

(i) Blood supply to kidney's is reduced.
(ii) Disposal of blood from the kidney's is reduced.
(iii) Auto regulation of micturition is disturbed.

The biconcave shape increases the surface area to volume ratio. Hence oxygen diffuses quickly in and out of the cell.

S.no. Peristomium Prostomium (1) It lies at the middle of the first
true segment It lies on pseudo or false segment (2) It starts to push the ingested
food into pharynx It starts ingestion (3) It serves as mouth A small flap overhanging the
mouth serves as upper lip

Male frog attracts female frog by amplifying its croaking sound during breeding season.

In plant cells vacuoles are large, bounded by a single unit membrane called Tonoplast.

In pycnoxylic the secondary growth in wood is compact with narrow medullary ray. Eg. Pinus

Stages in Growth rate:
The total period from initial to the final stage of growth is called the grand period of growth. The total growth is plotted against time and 'S' shaped sigmoid curve (Grand period curve) is obtained. It consists of four phases. They are:
I) Lag phase
2) Log phase
3) Decelerating phase
4) Maturation phase

(a) Cinnamon - Spice got from the bark of the tree. Eg: Cinnamomum.
(b) Rubber - Got from the latex vessels of the inner bark of Hevea brasiliensis.

Lipoprotein, outermembrane and lipopolysaccharide

A cardiac sphincter or gastro esophageal sphincter regulates the opening of oesophagus into the stomach

The biuret test is used as an indicator of the presence of protein because it gives a purple colour in the presence of peptide bonds (-C- N-). To a protein solution an equal quantity of sodium hydroxide solution is added and mixed. Then a few drops of 0.5% Copper (II) sulphate is added with gentle mixing. A distinct purple colour develops without heating

(i) Nitrogen fixation process requires Nitrogenase enzyme complex, Minerals (Mo, Fe and S), anaerobic condition, ATP, electron and glucose 6 phosphate as H⁺ donor.
(ii) Nitrogenase enzyme is active only in anaerobic condition.
(iii) To create this anaerobic condition a pigment known as leghaemoglobin is synthesized in the nodules which acts as oxygen scavenger and removes the oxygen.

The transmission of impulse involves two main phases; Resting membrane potential and Action membrane potential.
Resting membrane Potential: The electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane of a resting neuron is called the resting potential during which the interior of the cell is negative due to greater efflux of K⁺ outside the cell than Na⁺ influx into the cell. 
Action membrane potential: An action potential occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body. It includes following phases, depolarization, repolarisation and hypo polarization.

S.No.	Aggregate fruit	Multiple fruit
1	Aggregate fruits develop from a single fl ower having an apocarpous pistil. each of the free carpel develops into a simple fruitlet. A collection of simple fruitlets makes an Aggregate fruit. An individual ovary develops into a drupe, achene, follicle or berry	A Multiple or composite fruit develops from the whole infl orescence along with its peduncle on which they are borne
2	Eg: Polyalthia	Eg: Pineapple

1. Chloroplast: Photorcspiration is the excess respiration taking place in photosynthetic cells due to absence of CO₂ and increase of 0₂. This condition changes the carboxylase role of RUISCO into oxygenase. C₂ Cycle takes place in Chloroplast, Peroxisome and Mitochondna. RUBP is converted into PGA and a 2C- compound Phosphoglycolate by Rubisco enzyme in chloroplast. Since the first product is a 2C- compound, this cycle is known as C₂ Cycle. Phosphoglycolate by loss of Phosphate becomes Glycolate.
2. Chloroplast: Glycolate formed in Chloroplast enters into Peroxisome to form Glyoxylate and Hydrogen peroxide. Glyoxylate is converted I into Glycine and transferred into Mitochondria.
3. Mitochondria: Two molecules of Glycine combine to form Serine. Serine enters into Peroxisome to form Hydroxy pyruvate. Hydroxy pyruvate with help of NADH + H⁺ becomes Glyceric acid. Glyceric acid is cycled back to Chloroplast utilising ATP and becomes Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) and enters into the Calvin Cycle (PCR Cycle). Photorespiration does not yield any free energy in the form of ATP. Under certain conditions 50% of the Photosynthetic potential is lost because of Photorespiration.

Significance of photorespiration:
1) Glycine and Serine synthesised during this process are precursors of many biomolecules like chlorophyll, proteins, nucleotides, etc.
2) It consumes excess NADH + H+ generated.
3) Glycolate protects cells from Photo oxidation.

If you cut your finger or when you get yourself hurt, your wound bleeds for some time after which it stops to bleed. This is because the blood clots or coagulates in response to trauma. The mechanism by which excessive blood loss is prevented by the formation of clot is called blood coagulation or clotting of blood. The clotting process begins when the endothelium of the blood vessel is damaged and the connective tissue in its wall is exposed to the blood. Platelets adhere to collagen fibres in the connective tissue and release sub stances that form the platelet plug which provides emergency protection against blood loss. Clotting factors released from the clumped platelets or damaged cells mix with clotting factors in the plasma. The protein called prothrombin is converted to its active form called thrombin in thepresence of calcium and vitamin K. Thrombin helps in the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin threads. The threads of fibrins become interlinked into a patch that traps blood cell and seals the injured vessel until the wound is healed. After sometime fibrin fibrils contract, squeezing out a straw-coloured fluid through a meshwork called serum (Plasma without fibrinogen is called serum). Heparin is an anticoagulant produced in small quantities by mast cells of connective tissue which prevents coagulation in small blood vessels.

Photoperiodic induction
1) An appropriate photoperiod in 24 hours cycle constitutes one inductive cycle. Plants may require one or more inductive cycles for flowering.
2) The phenomenon of conversion of leaf primordia into flower primordia under the influence of suitable inductive cycles is called photoperiodic induction.
Example: Xanthium (SDP) - 1 inductive cycle and Plantago (LDP)- 25 inductive cycles.
Site of Photoinductive perception
1) Photoperiodic stimulus is perceived by the leaves.
2) Floral hormone is synthesised in leaves and translocated to the apical tip to promote flowering.
3) This can be explained by a simple experiment on Cocklebur (Xanthium pensylvanicum), a short day plant.
4) Usually Xanthium will flower under short day conditions. If the plant is defoliated and kept under short day conditions it will not flower.
5) Flowering will occur even when all the leaves are removed except one leaf.
6) If a cocklebur plant is defoliated and kept under long day conditions, it will not flower.
7) If one of its leaves is exposed to short day condition and rest are in long day condition, flowering will occur.

Diabetes mellitus:
1. It is otherwise known as hyperglycaemia.
2. It is caused due to lower secretion of insulin. By this process blood glucose level is elevated. There are two types of diabetes mellitus. Types I and Type II.
3. Type I diabetes is known Insulin dependent diabetes, caused by the lack of insulin secretion due to illness or some viral infections.
4. Type II diabetes is also known as Non-Insulin dependent diabetes, caused due to lower secretion of insulin.
5. The half life period of insulin [in plasma] is only 6 minutes.
6. Symptoms of diabetes includes polyurea, polyphagia, polydipsia [excessive consumption of liquid due to thirst] ketosis [Breakdown of fat into glucose result in accumulation of ketone bodies in blood.]
Diabetes insipidus:
1. Diabetes insipidus is caused due to hypo secretion of vasopressin [ADH] from neuro hypophysis
2. The symptom includes frequent urination [Polyurea] and excessive consumption of liquid due to thirst [polydipsia]

(a) Some nephrons, have very long loop of Henle that run deep into the medulla are called juxtamedullary nephrons which aid in filtration from glomerulus.
(b) Podocytes are the filtration slits.
(c) Sphincters of urinary bladder are internal paired (involuntary) and external paired (Voluntary) control micturition.

1. The respiratory system of cockroach is well developed compared with other terrestrial insects.
2. Branched tubes known as trachea open through 10 pairs of small holes called spiracles or stigmata, present on the lateral side of the body.
3. Terminal branches of tracheal tubes are called tracheoles which carry oxygen to the entire body. The spiracles open and close by valves regulated by sphincter or spiracular muscles. Each tracheole is filled with a watery fluid through which exchange of gases takes place.
4. During high muscular activity, a part of the fluid is drawn into the tissues to enable more oxygen intake and rapid diffusion.
5. The passage of air in the tracheal system is:

Respiration:
Two types of respiration is found in Bacteria. They are 
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
1. Aerobic respiration:
These bacteria require oxygen as terminal acceptor and will not grow under anaerobic  conditions (i.e. in the absence of O₂)
Eg: Streptococcus
Obligate aerobes :
Some Micrococcus species are obligate aerobes (i.e. they must have oxygen to survive).
2. Anaerobic respiration:
These bacteria do not use oxygen for growth and metabolism but obtain their energy from fermentation reactions. Eg : Clostridium
a) Facultative anaerobes:
(i) There are bacteria that can grow either using oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor or anaerobically using fermentation reaction to obtain energy.
(ii) Facultative anaerobes are often termed "aerobes".
(iii) When a facultative anaerobes such as E. coli is present at a site of infection like an abdominal abscess, it can rapidly consume all available O₂ and change to anaerobic metabolism producing an anaerobic environment and thus allow the anaerobic bacteria that are present to grow and cause disease.
Eg: Escherichia coli and Salmonella.
b) Capnophilic Bacteria:
(i) Bacteria which require CO₂ for their growth are called as capnophilic bacteria.
(ii) Eg : Campylobacter

Geocarpic means production or ripening of the fruit beneath the surface of the ground like the peanut. Peanut is also named Hypogea, which means under the earth. After pollination, the flower stalk elongates, and then it bends until the ovary touches the ground. Stalk growth continues and then it pushes the ovary underground, where the mature fruit develops into a legume pod. Thus peanut a classical example of geocarpic fruit. Geocarpy is generally seen in tropical or semi-desert areas. Some geocarpic species are found in the families Convolvulaceae, Moraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Araceae, Begoniaceae, Brassicaceae (Cruciferae), Fabaceae (Leguminosae), and Rubiaceae. The best-known example of Geocarpy is the peanut, that is, Arachis hypogaea.