They are seen in the sporophytes of bryophytes like Marchantia and help in dispersal of spores.

	Reserve Food
a) Green algae	Starch
b) Brown algae	Laminarin and Mannitol
c) Red Algae	Floridean starch

They are thin walled non motile spores produced during asexual reproduction in algae. Eg: Vaucheria

They are asexual spores which look similar to parent cell. Eg: Chlorella

(i) Presence of well organised plant body which is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
(ii) Presence of eustele.

In pycnoxylic the secondary growth in wood is compact with narrow medullary ray. Eg. Pinus

(i) Sexual reproduction is Oogamous. Antheridia and Archegonia are produced in a protective covering and are multicellular.
(ii) The antheridia produces biflagellate antherozoids which swims in thin film of water and reach the archegonium and fuse with the egg to form diploid zygote.
(iii) Water is essential for fertilization.
(iv) The zygote is the first cell of the sporophyte generation. It undergoes mitotic division to form multicellular undifferentiated embryo. The embryogeny is exoscopic (the first division of the zygote is transverse and the apex of the embryo develops from the outer cell). The embryo divides and give rise to sporophyte.
(v) The sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte.
(vi) It is differentiated into three recognizable parts namely foot, seta and capsule. Foot is the basal portion and is embedded in the gametophyte through which water and nutrients are supplied for the sporophyte.
(vii) The diploid spore mother cells found in the capsule region undergoes meiotic division and give rise to haploid spores. Bryophytes are homosporous.
(viii) In some sporophytes elaters are present and help in dispersal of spores ego Marchantia.
(ix) The spores germinate to produce gametophyte.

Ginkgo biloba has not changed for last several millions of years. So it is also called living fossil.

Gymnosperms resemble with angiosperms in the following features
(i) Presence of well-organised plant body which is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves
(ii) Presence of cambium in gymnosperms as in dicotyledons.
(iii) Flowers in Gnetum resemble to the angiosperm male flower. The Zygote represent the first cell of sporophyte.
(iv) Presence of integument around the ovule
(v) Both plant groups produce seeds
(vi) Pollen tube helps in the transfer of male nucleus in both.
(vii) Presence of Eustele

(i) Secondary growth is present. The wood may be Manoxylic(Porous, soft, more parenchyma with wide medullary ray -Cycas) or Pycnoxylic (compact with narrow medullary ray-Pinus).
(ii) They are Heterosporous. The plant may be monoecious (Pinus) or dioecious (cycas). Microsporangia and Megasporangia are produced on Microsporophylland Megasporophyll respectively.

(i) Inprotostelexylem surrounds phloem. The type includes Haplostele, Actinostele, Plectostele, and mixed protostele.
(ii) Haplostele: Xylem surrounded by phloem is known as haplostele. Example: Selaginella.
(ii) Actinostele: Star shaped xylem core is surrounded by phloem is known as actinostele . Example: Lycopodiumserratum.
(iii) Plectostele: Xylem plates alternates with phloem plates. Example: Lycopodiumclavatum.
(iv) Mixed prototostele: Xylem groups uniformly scattered in the phloem. Example: Lycopodiumcernuum.

(i) Vegetative reproduction takes place by the formation of adventitious buds (Riccia fluitans) tubers develop in Anthoceros.
(ii) In some forms small detachable branches or brood bodies are formed, they help in vegetative reproduction as in Bryopteris fruticulosa.
(iii) In Marchantia propagative organs called gemmae are formed and help in reproduction.

(i) Agar Agar - cell wall material used for media preparation in the microbiology lab.
(ii) Packing canned food, cosmetic, textile paper industry.
(iii) Carrageenan - Preparation of tooth paste, paint, blood coagulant
(iv) Alginate - Ice cream, paints, flame proof fabrics.

(i) Plant body is sporophyte (2n) and it is the dominant phase.
(ii) It is differentiated into root, stem and leaves. Roots are adventitious.
(iii) Stem shows monopodial or dichotomous branching.
(iv) Leaves may be microphyllous or megaphyllous.