Industrial uses of alcoholic fermentation:
1) In bakeries, it is used for preparing bread, cakes, biscuits.
2) In beverage industries for preparing wine and alcoholic drinks.
3) In producing vinegar and in tanning, curing of leather.
4) Ethanol is used to make gasohol (a fuel that is used for cars in Brazil).

1. Plasmolysis plays an important role In preservation of meat, jellies and other food stuffs and prevents them from being destroyed by bacteria and fungi.
2. In salting of food stuffs to be preserved, Bacteria and fungi get plasmolysed and killed due to exosmosis.

Hemicellulose binds the microfibrils with matrix and glycoproteins control the orientation of microfibrils while pectin serves as filling material of the matrix.

1) Plants follow different pathways in response to environment or phases of life to form different kinds of structures. This ability is called plasticity.
2) Example: Heterophylly in cotton and coriander. In such plants, the leaves of the juvenile plant are different in shape from those in mature plants.
3) On the other hand, the difference in shapes of leaves produced in air and those produced in water in buttercup also represent the heterophyllous development due to the environment. This phenomenon ofheterophylly is an example of plasticity.

(i) The log A will last longer for the merchant.
(ii) In any tree the outer part of the wood is pale in colour, is called Sap Wood, while the centre part is darker called Heart Wood.
(iii) Due to the presence of tyloses and their contents, the heartwood becomes coloured, dead and the hardest part of the wood.
(iv) The heartwood is more durable and more resistant to the attack of microorganisms and insects.

Kidneys-external
(i) A paired bean-shaped kidney lie one on either side of the vertebral column.
(ii) Kidneys are covered by renal capsule.
(iii) Kidneys are reddish brown in colour.
(iv) Each kidney weighs about 120-170 grams.
(v) The envelops of kidney are
(a) Renal fascia
(b) Peritoneal fat capsule
(c) Fibrous capsule
(vi) In the superior lumbar region lies the kidney at the levels of the last thoracic vertebra(T₁₂) and third lumbar vertebra(L₃).
(vii) The right kidney is placed slightly lower than the left kidney because a large right lobe of liver occupies more space in lower abdominal cavity.
Kidneys-Internal Region
(i) The longitudinal section(Ls) of kidney shows two regions
(a) cortex
(i) An outer region of kidney extends in between medullary pyramids as the renal columns of Bertini.
(ii) Renal artery enters the kidney.
(iii) Renal vein and pelvis of ureter come out of kidney.
(iv) An inner concave surface shows a notch called hilum.


(b) Medulla
(i) An inner medulla is divisible into few conical tissue masses called renal pyramids or medullary pyramids.
(ii) Hilum is the passage of blood vessels, pelvis of ureter and nerves.
(iii) Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called renal pelvis found with projections called calyces.
(iv) Pelvis is continuous with the ureter.
(v) The walls of the calyces, pelvis and ureter have smooth muscles which contract rhythmically.
(vi) The calyces collect the urine and empties into the ureter.
(vii) Bladder stores urine temporarily.
(viii) Bladder opens into urethra.
(ix) Urethra opens exterior to release out urine.

1. Frog is an important animal in the food chain. It helps to maintain our ecosystem. So 'frogs should be protected'.
2. Frogs are beneficial to man, since they feed on insects and helps in reducing insect pest population.
3. Frogs are used in traditional medicine for controlling blood pressure and for its anti-aging properties.

(i) Eggs or young ones produced by an oviparous (egg laying)and viviparous (directly yield young ones) female animals may not be equal.
(ii) Numerous eggs are laid by oviparous, so the number of produced offsprings is indefinite.
(iii) Eggs laid by oviparous, female may not develop into adults due to predators.
(iv) Oviparous female includes polyembryony.
(v) Viviparous produced by females need protection from predators associated with parental cares.
(vi) Development of young ones of oviparous female occurs in environment whereas the development of young ones of viviparous female occurs in the female reproductive system of adults.

Probiotics	Pathogenic bacteria
Probiotic bacteria are beneficial.	Pathogenic bacteria are harmful.
Probiotic bacteria may be decomposers, photosynthetic and few may be pathogenic.	All are pathogenic and causing diseases.

S.No	Criteria	Monera
1.	Cell type	Prokaryotic
2.	Level of organization	Mostly unicellular, rarely Multicellular
3.	Cell wall	Present (made up of peptidoglycan and mucopeptides)
4.	Nutrition	Autotrophic (Phototrophic, Chemoautotrophic) Heterotrophic (Parasitic and Saprophytic)
5.	Motility	Motile or non-motile
6.	Organisms	Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Cyanobacteria, Actinomycetes and Mycoplasma

Yes, the shape of chloroplast is unique for algae.

S.No	Shapes	Examples
1	Cup shaped	Chlamydomonas
2	Discoid	Chara
3	Girdle shaped	Ulothrix
4	Reticulate	Oedogonium
5	Spiral	Spirogyra
6	Stellate	Zygnema
7	Plate like	Mougeotia/td>

ABA - Abscisic acid is a phytohormone
Physiological effects:
1) It helps in reducing transpiration rate by closii stomata. It inhibits K⁺ uptake by guard cells and promotes the leakage of malic acid. It results in closure of stomata.
2) It spoils chlorophylls, proteins and nucleic acids of leaves making them yellow.
3) Inhibition of cell division and cell elongation,
4) ABA is a powerful growth inhibitor. It causes 50% inhibition of growth in Oat coleoptile.
5) It induces bud and seed dormancy.
6) It promotes the abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits by forming abscission layers.
7) ABA plays an important role in plants during water stress and during drought conditions. It results in loss of turgor and closure of stomata.
8) It has anti-auxin and anti-gibberellin property.
9) Abscisic acid promotes senescence in leaves by causing loss of chlorophyll pigment decreasing the rate of photosynthesis and changing the rate of proteins and nucleic acid synthesis.

The bacterial cell reveals three layers
(i) Capsule / Glycocalyx
(ii) Cell wall
(iii) Cytoplasm
  
Capsule/Glycocalyx:
(i) Some bacteria are surrounded by a gelatinous substance which is composed of polysaccharides or polypeptide or both.
(ii) A thick layer of glycocalyx bound tightly to the cell wall is called capsule.
(iii) It protects cell from desiccation and antibiotics. The sticky nature helps them to attach to substrates like plant root surfaces, Human teeth and tissues.
(iv) It helps to retain the nutrients in bacterial cell.
Cell wall:
(i) The bacterial cell wall is granular and is rigid.
(ii) It provide protection and gives shape to the cell.
(iii)The chemical composition of cell wall is rather complex and is made up of Peptidoglycan or mucopeptide (N-acetyl glucosamine, N-acetyl muramic acid and peptide chain of 4 or 5 aminoacids).
(iv) One of the most abundant polypeptide called porin is present and it helps in the diffusion of solutes.
Plasma membrane
(i) The plasma membrane is made up of lipoprotein. It controls the entry and exit of small molecules and ions. The enzymes involved in the oxidation of metabolites (i.e., the respiratory chain) as well as the photosystems used in photosynthesis are present in the plasma membrane.
Cytoplasm:
(i) Cytoplasm is thick and semi-transparent. It contains ribosomes and other cell inclusions. Cytoplasmic inclusions like glycogen, poly-\(\beta\)-hydroxybutyrate granules, sulphur granules and gas vesicles are present.

They develops from single ovary where the pericarp is l dry and not differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. It is further subdivided into two types.
Dry Dehiscent Fruit
Pericarp is dry and splits open along the sutures to liberate seeds. They can be classified into following types.
Follicle:
Fruit develops from monocarpellary, superior ovary and dehisces along one suture. Example: calotropis.
Legume or pod:
Fruit develops from monocarpellary, superior ovary and dehisces through both dorsal and ventral sutures. Example: Pisum.
Siliqua:
Fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary initially one chambered but subsequently becomes two chambered due to the formation of false septum (replum). The fruit dehisces along two suture. Example: Brassica.
Silicula:
Fruit similar to sliqua but shorter and broader. Example: Capsella, Lepidium, Alyssum.
Capsule:
Fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. Based on the dehiscence pattern they are sub divided into.
Septicidal:
Capsule splitting along septa and valves remaining attached to septa. Example: Linum, Aristolochia.
Loculicidal:
Capsule splitting along locules and values remaining attached to septa. Example: Lady's finger. Septifragal:
Capsule splitting so that valves fall off leaving seeds attached to the centra. axis. Example: Datura. Poricidal:
Dehiscence through terminal pores. Example Papaver.
Denticidal:
Capsule opening at top exposing a number of teeth. Example: Primula, Cerastium. Circumscissile (pyxidium) Dehisces transversely so that top comes off as a lid or operculum. Example: Anagallis arvensis, Portulaca, Operculina.
Dry Indehiscent Fruit:
Dry fruit which does not split open at maturity. It is subdivided into.
Achene:
Single seeded dry fruit developing from single carpel with superior ovary. Achenes commonly develop from apocarpous pistil, Fruit wall is free from seed coat. Example: Clematis, Delphinium, Strawberry.
Cypsela:
Single seeded dry fruit, develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary with reduced scales, hairy or feathery calyx lobes. Example: Tridax, Helianthus.
Caryopsis:
It is a one seeded fruit which develops from a monocarpellary, superior ovary. Pericarp is inseparably fused with seed. Example: Oryza, Triticum.
Nut:
They develops from mulicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary with hard, woody or bony pericarp. It is a one-seeded fruit. Example: Quercus, Anacardium.
Samara:
A dry indehiscent, one seeded fruit in which the pericarp devlops into thin winged structure around the fruit. Example: Acer, Pterocarpous.
Utricle:
They develop from. bicarpellary, unilocular, syncarpus, superior ovary with pericarp loosely enclosing the seeds. Example: Chenopodium.
Schizocarpic Fruit :
This fruit type is intermediate between dehiscent and indehiscent fruit. The fruit instead of dehiscing rather split into number of segments, each containing one or more seeds. They are of following types.
Cremocarp:
Fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary and splitting into two one seeded segments known as mericarps. Example: Coriander, Carrot.
Carcerulus:
Fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary and splitting into four one seeded segments known as nutlets. Example: Leucas, Ocimum, Abutilon
Lomentum:
The fruit is derived from monocarpellary, unilocular ovary. A leguminous fruit, constricted between the seeds to form a number of one seeded compartment that separates at maturity. Example: Desmodium, Arachis, Mimosa
Regma:
They develops from tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior, trilocular ovary and splits into one- seeded cocci which remain attached to carpophore. Example: Ricinus, Geranium.

Comparison of Microscopes

Features	Light Microscope	DarkField Microscope	Phase Contrast Microscope	Transmission Electron Microscope	Scanning Electron Microscope
Source of illumination for Image Formation.	Visible Light	Visible Light	Visible Light	Electrons	Electrons
Types of cells visualized	Types of cells visualized Individual cells can be visualized,	Types of cells visualized Individual cells can be visualized,	Types of cells visualized Individual cells can be visualized,	Thin section of the specimen are obtained. The electron began pass through the sections and form an image with high magnification and high resolution.	The specimen is coated with gold and the electrons are reflected back and give the details of surface topography of the specimen.
Image	2-D	2-D	2-D	2-D	3-D
Nature of Lenses	Glass lenses	Glass lenses	Glass lenses	One electrostatic lens with few electromagnetic lenses	One electrostatic lens with few electromagnetic lenses
Medium	Air/Oil	Air/Oil	Air/Oil	Vacuum	Vacuum
Specimen mounting	Glass sides	Glass sides	Glass sides	Mounted on coated or uncoated copper grids	Mounted on aluminium stubs and are coated in gold
Focusing and Magnification Adjustment	Changing Objectives	Changing objectives	Changing Objectives	Electrical, using deflection coil	Electrical, using deflection coil
Means for obtaining specimen Contrast	Light diffraction	Through patch stop	Through phase plate	Electron Scattering	Electron Scattering
Microscope picture

There are four types of compound epithelium namely, stratified squamous epithelium, cuboidal epithelium, columnar epithelium and transitional epithelium.
Stratified squamous epithelium is of two types called keratinized type which forms the dry epidermis of the skin and the non keratinized type forms the moist lining of the esophagus, mouth, conjunctiva of the eyes and vagina. Stratified cuboidal epithelium mostly found in the ducts of sweat glands and mammary glands. Stratified columnar epithelium has limited distribution in the body, found around the lumen of the pharynx, male urethra and lining of some glandular ducts. 
Transitional Epithelium is found lining the ureters, urinary bladder and part of the urethra. This epithelium allows stretching and is protective in function.

Respiratory Volumes - Tidal Volume (TV): Tidal volume is the amount of air inspired or expired wit each normal breath. It is approximately 500 mL., i.e. a normal human adult can inspire or expire approximately 6000 to 8000mL of air per minute. During vigorous exercise, the tidal volume is about 4 -10 times higher.
Inspiratory Reserve volume (RV): Additional volume of air a person can inspire by forceful inspiration is called Inspiratory Reserve Volume. The normal value is 2500 to 3000 mL.
Expiratory Reserve volume (ERV): Additional volume of air a person can forcefully exhale by forceful expiration is called Expiratory Reserve Volume. The normal value is 1000 -1100 mL.
Residual Volume (RV):The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forceful expiration. It is approximately 1100 - 1200 mL.
Respiratory capacities - Vital capacity (VC): The maximum volume of air that can be moved out during a smgle breath following a maximal inspiration. A person first inspires maximally then expires maximally. VC = ERV + TV + IRV.
Inspiratory capacity (IC): The total volume of air a person can inhale after normal expiration ..
It includes tidal vo ume and inspiratory reserve volume. IC = TV + IRV.
Expiratory capacity (EC): The total volume of air a person can exhale after normal inspiration: It mcludes tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume. EC = TV + ERV.
Total Lung Capacity (TLC): The total volume of air which the lungs can accommodate after forced inspiration is called Total Lung Capacity. This includes the vital capacity and the esidual volume. It is approximately 6000mL. TLC = VC + RV.
Miunte Respiratory Volume: The amount of air that moves into the respiratory passage per minute is called minute respiratoru volume.
Normal TV=500mL; Normal respiratory rate=12 times/minute. Therefore, miute respiratory volume=6 Litres/minute (for a normal healthy man).

(i) C₄ cycle/Di - carboxylic acid pathway/ Di - carboxylation pathway is an adaptive mechanism.
(ii) It takes place in two phases. First phase takes place in stroma of mesophyll cells, where the CO₂ acceptor molecule 3-Carbon compound, phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) to form 4-carbon oxalo acetic acid (OAA). The first product is a 4-carbon and so it is named as C₄ cycle. Oxalo acetic acid is a dicarboxylic acid and hence this cycle is also known as dicarboxylic acid pathway.
(iii) Carbondioxide fixation takes place in two places one in mesophyll and another in bundle sheath cell.
(iv) C₄ plants requires 5 ATP and 2NADPH + H⁺ to fix one molecule of CO₂.

Stage: I Mesophyll Cells

(i) Oxaloacetic acid (OAA) is converted into malic acid or aspartic acid and is transported to the bundle sheath cells through plasmodesmata.
Stage: II Bundle Sheath Cells
(i) Malic acid undergoes decarboxylation and produces a 3 carbon compound Pyruvic acid and CO₂.
(ii) The released CO₂ combines with RUBP and follows the calvin cycle and finally sugar is released to the phloem.
(iii) Pyruvic acid is transported to the mesophyll cells.

a	Radical buds	Foliar buds
Differences	Radical buds arises from the lateral roots. Eg. Sweet potato	Foliar buds develop from veins or from margins of the leaves. Eg. Begonia
Similarities	It is a type of adventitious root	It is a type of adventitious root
b	Phylloclade	Cladode
Differences	Presence of series of nodes and internodes. Eg: Casuarina	Presence of one or two internodes only. Eg: Asparagus
Similarities	Phylloclade is a stem modification	Cladode is a stem modification

Features of DNA:
1. If one strand runs in the 5'- 3' direction, the other runs in 3'- 5' direction and thus are antiparallel (they run in opposite direction). The 5' end has the phosphate group and 3' end has the OH group.
2. The angle at which the two sugars protrude from the base pairs is about 120°, for the narrow angle and 240° for the wide angle. The narrow-angle between the sugars generates a minor groove and the large angle on the other edge generates major groove.
3. Each base is 0.34 nm apart and a complete turn of the helix comprises 3.4 nm or 10 base pairs per turn in the predominant B form of DNA.
4. DNA helical structure has a diameter of 20 A° and a pitch of about 34 A°. X-ray crystal study of DNA takes a stack of about 10 bp to go completely around the helix (360°).
5. Thermodynamic stability of the helix and specificity of base pairing includes
(i) the hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases of the double helix
(ii) stacking interaction between bases tend to stack about each other perpendicular to the direction of helical axis. Electron cloud interactions ((Π – Π)) between the bases in the helical stacks contribute to the stability of the double helix.
6. The phosphodiester linkages gives an inherent polarity to the DNA helix. They form strong covalent bonds, gives the strength and stability to the polynucleotide chain.
7. Plectonemic coiling - The two strands of the DNA are wrapped around each other in a helix, making it impossible to simply move them apart without breaking the entire structure. Whereas in paranemic coiling the two strands simply lie alongside one another, making them easier to pull apart.
8. Based on the helix and the distance between each turns the DNA is of three forms - A DNA, B DNA and Z DNA.

1. It plays a central role in the regulation circadian rhythm of our body.
2. Maintains the normal sleep wake cycle
3. Also regulates the timing of sexual maturation of gonads.

Interphase is the longest phase. Cells are metabolically active and involved in protein synthesis and growth.

S.No	Gynoecium of Pi sum sativum	Gynoecium of Datura metal
1	Mono Carpellary	Bicarpellary
2	Unilocular	Tetralocular
3	Ovules on marginal placentation	Ovules on axile placentation
4	Feathery stigma	Bilobed stigma

Axis develops on only one side and forms a coil structure at least at the earlier development stage. Example: Hamelia, potato.

The cells of sclerenchyma & tracheids become dead because they lack protoplasm

(i) Hormones coordinate different physical, physiological, mental activities and maintain homeostasis.
(ii) Maintenance of constant internal environment of the body by the different coordinating system.

1. It is used as an antiseptic, laxative and as a sedative.
2. It is generally used in Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine.
3. It is also used in the preparation of cakes, breads, and biscuits.

If a person diet does not contain iron, the synthesis of haemoglobin is lowered in bone marrow because each haemoglobin consists of 4 iron atoms to accept 4 O2