Depending on the presence or absence of surface antigens on the RBCs, blood group in individual belongs to four different types namely, A, B, AB and O. The plasma of A, B and O individuals have natural antibodies (agglutinins) in them. Surface antigens are called agglutinogens. The antibodies (agglutinin) acting on agglutinogen A is called anti A and the agglutinin acting on agglutinogen B is called anti B. Agglutinogens are absent in a blood group. Agglutinogens A and B are present in AB blood group and do not contain anti A and anti B in them. A, B and O are major allelic genes in ABO systems. All agglutinogens contain sucrose, Dsgalactose, N-acetyl glucosamine and 11 terminal amino acids. The attachments of the terminal amino acids are dependent on the gene products of A and B. The reaction is catalysed by glycosyltransferase.

There are three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. They are the largest parotids gland in the cheeks, the sub-maxillary/sub-mandibular in the lower jaw and the sublingual beneath the tongue.

The increase in pulmonary volume and decrease in the intrapulmonary pressure forces the fresh air from outside. to enter the air passages into the lungs to equalize the pressure. This process is called inspiration.

(a) Clitellum Location: 14^th to 17^th segments appears as unsegmented externally
(b) Spermathecal openings: Location 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9 segments.

Homoiomerous	Heteromerous
Algal cells evenly distributed in the thallus	A distinct layer of algae and fungi present

(i) Presence of well organised plant body which is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
(ii) Presence of eustele.

(i) It is a structural abnormality in which superior part of the stomach protrudes slightly above the diaphragm.
(ii) Muscles are weakened due to injury and other damage in some people.
(iii) Its cause is uncertain.
(iv) Application of repeated high pressure on the smooth muscles around the stomach while coughing, vomiting and staining during bowl movements and lifting heavy object.
(v) Heart burn is the common symptom.
(vi) Under this condition, stomach contents travel back (reverse) into oesophagus or even into buccal cavity. It results in pain at the centre of chest due to eroding nature of acidity (HCl in stomach).

1. Malfunctioning of the kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea and other toxic substances, leading to kidney failure. In such patients toxic urea can be removed from the blood by a process called haemodialysis
2. A dialysing machine or an artificial kidney is connected to the patient's body. A dialysing machine consists of a long cellulose tube surrounded by the dialysing fluid in a water bath.
3. The patient's blood is drawn from a convenient artery and pumped into the dialysing unit after adding an anticoagulant like heparin.
4. The tiny pores in the dialysis tube allows small molecules such as glucose, salts and urea to enter into the water bath, whereas blood cells and protein molecules do not enter these pores.
5. This stage is similar to the filtration process in the glomerulus. The dialysing liquid in the water bath consists of solution of salt and sugar in correct proportion in order to prevent loss of glucose and essential salts from the blood.
6. The cleared blood is then pumped back to the body through a vein.

The heart in human is myogenic (cardiomyocytes can produce spontaneous rhythmic depolarisation that initiates contractions). The sequence of electrical conduction of heart is shown below.

1. The cardiac cells with fastest rhythm are called the Pacemaker cells, which are located in the right sinoatrial (SA) node/ Pacemaker.
2. On the left side of the right atrium is a node called auriculo ventricular node (AV node). 
3. Two special cardiac muscle fibres originate from the auriculo ventricular node and are called the bundle of His which runs down into the interventricular septum and the fibres spread into the ventricles. These fibres are called the Purkinje fibres.
4. Pacemaker cells produce excitation through depolarisation of their cell membrane. Early depolarisation is slow and takes place by sodium influx and reduction in potassium efflux.
5. Minimum potential is required to activate voltage gated calcium (Ca⁺) channels that causes rapid depolarisation which results in action potential. The pace maker cells repolarise slowly via K⁺ efflux.

Asexual reproduction in Fungi:


1. Zoospores : They are flagellate structures produced in zoosporangia. Eg : Chytrids.
2. Conidia : The spores produced on conidiophores. Eg: Aspergillus.
3. Oldia/Thallospores : The hypha divide and develop in to spores called oidia. Eg : Erysiphe.
4. Fission : The vegetative cell divide into 2 daughter cells. Eg: Schizosaccharomyces- Yeast.
5. Budding: A small outgrowth is developed on parent cell, which gets detached and become independent. Eg :Saccharomyces - Yeast.
6. Chlamydospore: Thick walled resting spores are called chlamydospores Eg: Fusarium.

S.No	Monopodial Branching	Sympodial branching
1	Indeterminate: The terminal bud grows uninterrupted and produce several lateral branches. This type of growth is also known as monopodial branching. Example: Polyalthia, Swietenia.	Determinate: The terminal bud cease to grow after a period of growth and further growth is taken care by successive or several lateral meristem or buds. This type of growth is also known as sympodial branching. Example: Cycas.

The fruits are derived from single pistil where the pericarp is fleshy, succulent and differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. It is subdivided into the following.
(i) Berry: Fruit develops from bicarpellary or multicarpellary, syncarpous ovary. Here the epicarp is thin, the mesocarp and endocarp remain undifferentiated. They form a pulp in which the seeds are embedded. Eg: Tomato, Grapes, Brinjal.

(ii) Drupe: Fruit develops from monocarpellary, superior ovary. It is usually one seeded. Pericarp is differentiated into outer skinny epicarp, fleshy and pulpy mesocarp and hard and stony endocarp around the seed. Eg: Mango, Coconut.

(iii) Pepo: Fruit develops from tricarpellary inferior ovary. Pericarp turns leathery or woody which encloses, fleshy mesocarp and smooth endocarp. Eg: Cucumber, Watermelon, Bottle gourd, Pumpkin.

(iv) Hesperidium:Fruit develops from multicarpellary, multilocular, syncarpous, superior ovary. The fruit wall is differentiated into leathery epicarp with oil glands, a middle fibrous mesocarp. The endocarp forms distinct chambers, containing juicy hairs. Eg: Orange, Lemon.

(v) Pome: It develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary. The receptacle also develops along with the ovary and becomes fleshy, enclosing the true fruit. In pome the epicarp is thin skin like and endocarp is cartilaginous. Eg: Apple, Pear.

(vi) Balausta: A fleshy indehiscent fruit developing from multicarpellary, multilocular inferior ovary whose pericarp is tough and leathery. Seeds are attached irregularly with testa being the edible portion. Eg: Pomegranate.

(i) R.H.Whittaker, an American taxonomist proposed five kingdom classification in the year 1969.
(ii) The Kingdoms include Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
(iii) The criteria adopted for the classification include cell structure, thallus organization, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationship. The merits and demerits are as follows:
Merits:
(i) The classification is based on the complexity of cell structure and organization of thallus.
(ii) It is based on the mode of nutrition.
(iii) Separation of fungi from plants.
(iv) It shows the phylogeny of the organisms.
Demerits:
(i) The kingdom Monera and Protista accommodate both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms, cell wall lacking and cell wall bearing organisms thus making these two groups more heterogeneous.
(ii) Viruses were not included in the system.
 

(i) The manual method called mouth to mouth for CPR was introduced by James Elam and Peter Safar in 1956.
(ii) It is a life saving process.
(iii) It is performed under emergency conditions when persons feel difficulty in breathing and heart beats.
(iv) CPR is needed when a patient is under treatment due to drowning, electric shock or heart attack.
(v) CPR administrated from mouth practisioner to the mouth of the victim for filling of air in the lungs of victim.
(vi) This practice promotes the circulation of blood to the vital organs.
(vii) The duration of CPR is 4-6 minutes after cessation of breath to prevent brain damage or death.
(viii) Defibrillation is simultaneously done along with CPR.
(ix) Defibrillation means a brief electric shock is given to the heart to recover the function of the heart.

1. The bacterial chromosome is, a single circular DNA molecule, tightly coiled and is not enclosed in a membrane as in Eukaryotes.
2. This genetic material is called Nucleoid or Genophore. It is amazing to note that the DNA of E.coli which measures about Imm long when uncoiled, contains all the genetic information of the organism.
3. The DNA is not bound to histone proteins. The single chromosome or the DNA molecule is circular and at one point it is attached to the plasma membrane and it is believed that this attachment may help in the separation of two chromosomes after DNA replication.

1. The amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle per minute is called cardiac output(CO).
2. It is a product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV).

(i) Eggs or young ones produced by an oviparous (egg laying)and viviparous (directly yield young ones) female animals may not be equal.
(ii) Numerous eggs are laid by oviparous, so the number of produced offsprings is indefinite.
(iii) Eggs laid by oviparous, female may not develop into adults due to predators.
(iv) Oviparous female includes polyembryony.
(v) Viviparous produced by females need protection from predators associated with parental cares.
(vi) Development of young ones of oviparous female occurs in environment whereas the development of young ones of viviparous female occurs in the female reproductive system of adults.