(i) Ingested food is to be completely digested.
(ii) Digestive medium should become normal conditions.
(iii) Maximum utilization of digestive secretions is to be performed for the digestion of food.
(iv) The stimulation of digestive hormonal secretions is to be regulated.

1. Cutaneous respiration: by skin
2. Lamellar or bronchial respiration (young and developing tadpole):- by external and internal gills
3. Pulmonary respiration: by lungs
4. Buccopharyngeal respiration: by buccal cavity

(i) Flame cells are found in acoelom.
(ii)They collect nitrogenous wastes from visceral parenchyma.
(iii) Excreta are transported to the lateral excretory ducts and finally ejected out by excretory pores.
(iv) When such cells collect the excreta showing flickering movements of the flame they are called as flame cells.
Eg: Planaria or dugesia belongs to the class Turbellaria of phylum Platyhelminthes.

Lateral roots develop as extensions of the cells of pericycle in the anatomy of the root. Therefore they are said to be endogenous in origin.

(i) Corti first observed protoplasm Felix Dujardin (1835) observed a living juice in animal cell and called it "Sarcode". Purkinje (1839) coined the term protoplasm for sap inside a plant cell. Hugo Van Mohl (1846) indicated importance of protoplasm.
(ii) Max Schultze (1861) established similarity between Protoplasm and Sarcode and O. Hertwig (1892) proposed a theory which later on called 'protoplasm theory' Huxley (1868) proposed protoplasm as a "physical basis of life".

Xylem plates alternate with phloem plates. Eg: Lycopodium clavatum.

The fruits are derived from single pistil where the pericarp is fleshy, succulent and differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. It is subdivided into the following.
(i) Berry: Fruit develops from bicarpellary or multicarpellary, syncarpous ovary. Here the epicarp is thin, the mesocarp and endocarp remain undifferentiated. They form a pulp in which the seeds are embedded. Eg: Tomato, Grapes, Brinjal.

(ii) Drupe: Fruit develops from monocarpellary, superior ovary. It is usually one seeded. Pericarp is differentiated into outer skinny epicarp, fleshy and pulpy mesocarp and hard and stony endocarp around the seed. Eg: Mango, Coconut.

(iii) Pepo: Fruit develops from tricarpellary inferior ovary. Pericarp turns leathery or woody which encloses, fleshy mesocarp and smooth endocarp. Eg: Cucumber, Watermelon, Bottle gourd, Pumpkin.

(iv) Hesperidium:Fruit develops from multicarpellary, multilocular, syncarpous, superior ovary. The fruit wall is differentiated into leathery epicarp with oil glands, a middle fibrous mesocarp. The endocarp forms distinct chambers, containing juicy hairs. Eg: Orange, Lemon.

(v) Pome: It develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary. The receptacle also develops along with the ovary and becomes fleshy, enclosing the true fruit. In pome the epicarp is thin skin like and endocarp is cartilaginous. Eg: Apple, Pear.

(vi) Balausta: A fleshy indehiscent fruit developing from multicarpellary, multilocular inferior ovary whose pericarp is tough and leathery. Seeds are attached irregularly with testa being the edible portion. Eg: Pomegranate.

Features of DNA:
1. If one strand runs in the 5'- 3' direction, the other runs in 3'- 5' direction and thus are antiparallel (they run in opposite direction). The 5' end has the phosphate group and 3' end has the OH group.
2. The angle at which the two sugars protrude from the base pairs is about 120°, for the narrow angle and 240° for the wide angle. The narrow-angle between the sugars generates a minor groove and the large angle on the other edge generates major groove.
3. Each base is 0.34 nm apart and a complete turn of the helix comprises 3.4 nm or 10 base pairs per turn in the predominant B form of DNA.
4. DNA helical structure has a diameter of 20 A° and a pitch of about 34 A°. X-ray crystal study of DNA takes a stack of about 10 bp to go completely around the helix (360°).
5. Thermodynamic stability of the helix and specificity of base pairing includes
(i) the hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases of the double helix
(ii) stacking interaction between bases tend to stack about each other perpendicular to the direction of helical axis. Electron cloud interactions ((Π – Π)) between the bases in the helical stacks contribute to the stability of the double helix.
6. The phosphodiester linkages gives an inherent polarity to the DNA helix. They form strong covalent bonds, gives the strength and stability to the polynucleotide chain.
7. Plectonemic coiling - The two strands of the DNA are wrapped around each other in a helix, making it impossible to simply move them apart without breaking the entire structure. Whereas in paranemic coiling the two strands simply lie alongside one another, making them easier to pull apart.
8. Based on the helix and the distance between each turns the DNA is of three forms - A DNA, B DNA and Z DNA.

(i) R.H.Whittaker, an American taxonomist proposed five kingdom classification in the year 1969.
(ii) The Kingdoms include Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
(iii) The criteria adopted for the classification include cell structure, thallus organization, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationship. The merits and demerits are as follows:
Merits:
(i) The classification is based on the complexity of cell structure and organization of thallus.
(ii) It is based on the mode of nutrition.
(iii) Separation of fungi from plants.
(iv) It shows the phylogeny of the organisms.
Demerits:
(i) The kingdom Monera and Protista accommodate both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms, cell wall lacking and cell wall bearing organisms thus making these two groups more heterogeneous.
(ii) Viruses were not included in the system.
 

S.No Plant cell Animal cell 1.  Usually they are larger than animal cells Usually smaller than plant cells 2. Cell wall present in addition to plasma membrane and consists of middle lamellae, primary and secondary walls Cell wall absent. 3.  Plasmodesmata present.  Plasmodesmata absent. 4.  Chloroplast present. Chloroplast absent. 5.  Vacuole large and Permanent. Vacuole small and temporary. 6.  Tonoplast present around vacuole.  Tonoplast absent 7.  Centrioles absent except motile cells of lower plants.  Centrioles present 8.  Nucleus present along the periphery of the cell  Nucleus at the centre of the cell 9.  Lysosomes are rare  Lysosomes present. 10.  Storage material is starch grains.  Storage material is a glycogen granules.

Role of Botanical Garden: 
Botanical Gardens play the following important roles.
1. Gardens have a wide range of species and supply taxonomic material for botanical research.
2. It can integrate information of diverse fields like Anatomy, Embryology, Phytochemistry, Cytology, Physiology and Ecology.
3. Act as a conservation centre for diversity, rare and endangered species.
4. It offers annual list of available species and a free exchange of seeds.
5. Botanical garden gives information about method of propagation, sale of plant material to the general public.

(i) The colourless fluid tissue circulated within the body is lymph.
(ii) A large number of lymphocytic cell concentrations in various lymphoid organs help to maintain immunity and disposal of cell debris.
(iii) Lacteals of lymphatic system absorb and transport some substances like fatty acids, glycerol, and vitamins A, D, E & K.

(i) This family consists of more than one species in the genus it is known as polytypic genus.
(ii) Species are intrageneric
(iii) A single genus is Felis which has a number of closely related species.
(iv) Different species of a single genus show the same morphological characteristics but their behavior varies
(v) Eg: Felis domestica (Domestic cat)
Felis margarita (Jungle cat)
Felis silvestris (Wild cat)

Probiotics	Pathogenic bacteria
Probiotic bacteria are beneficial.	Pathogenic bacteria are harmful.
Probiotic bacteria may be decomposers, photosynthetic and few may be pathogenic.	All are pathogenic and causing diseases.

S.No.	Aggregate fruit	Multiple fruit
1	Aggregate fruits develop from a single fl ower having an apocarpous pistil. each of the free carpel develops into a simple fruitlet. A collection of simple fruitlets makes an Aggregate fruit. An individual ovary develops into a drupe, achene, follicle or berry	A Multiple or composite fruit develops from the whole infl orescence along with its peduncle on which they are borne
2	Eg: Polyalthia	Eg: Pineapple

S.No	Criteria	Monera
1.	Cell type	Prokaryotic
2.	Level of organization	Mostly unicellular, rarely Multicellular
3.	Cell wall	Present (made up of peptidoglycan and mucopeptides)
4.	Nutrition	Autotrophic (Phototrophic, Chemoautotrophic) Heterotrophic (Parasitic and Saprophytic)
5.	Motility	Motile or non-motile
6.	Organisms	Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Cyanobacteria, Actinomycetes and Mycoplasma

(i) Some cells exit G₁ and enters a quiescent stage called G₀, where the cell remains metabolically active without proliferation.
(ii) Cells can exist for long periods in G₀ phase. In G₀ cells cease growth with reduced rate of RNA and protein synthesis.
(iii) The G₀ phase is not permanent. Mature neuron and skeletal muscle cell remain permanently in G₀.
(iv) Many cells in animals remains in G₀ unless called on to proliferate by appropriate growth factors or other extracellular signals. G₀ cells are not dormant.