Sources for human body produces free radicals,
(i) Human body is exposed to X-rays.
(ii) Cigarette smoke.
(iii) Industrial chemicals.
(iv) Air pollutants.

(i) Alkenes are used as starting material in the synthesis of alcohols, plastics, detergents and fuels.
(ii) Ethene is the most important organic feedstock in the polymer industry. Examples are, PVC, Sarans and Polythene. These polymers are used in the manufacture of floor tiles, shoe-soles, synthetic fibres, raincoats, pipes etc.

(i)

(ii)

Excessive phytoplankton (organic pollutants such as leaves, grass trash etc.) growth which is present in water is biodegradable. Bacteria decomposes this organic matter in water. During this process when large number of bacteria decomposes the organic matter, they con ume the dissolved oxygen in water. When the level of dissolved oxygen falls below 6 ppm then the fishes cannot survive and they die.

(i) CH₃COOH-it is not present in acid rain.
(ii) In stratosphere and thermosphere temperature increases with attitude.
(iii) In troposphere and mesosphere - temperature decreases with attitude.

Under equilibrium condition at a given temperature, the ratio of the product of active masses of reaction products raised to the respective stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation to that of the reactants is a constant, known as equilibrium constant.

A small piece of Na dried by pressing between the folds Ofa filter paper is taken in a fusion-tube and it is gently heated. When it melts to a shining globule, put a pinch of the organic compound on it. Heat the tube till reaction ceases and becomes red hot. Plunge it in about 50 mL of distilled water taken in a china dish and break the bottom of the tube by striking against the dish. Boil the contents of the dish for about 10 mts and filter. This filtrate is known as Lassaignes extract or sodium fusion extract and it used for detection of nitrogen, sulfur and halogens present in organic compounds.

(i) Freon - 12 is prepared by the action of hydrogen fluoride on carbon tetrachloride in the presence "of catalylic amount of antimony pentachloride. is is called swartz reaction.
\(\underset { Carbontetrachloride }{ C{ Cl }_{ 4 }+2HF } \overset { SbC{ l }_{ 5 } }{ \longrightarrow } \underset { Freon-12 }{ 2HCl } +CC{ l }_{ 2 }{ F }_{ 2 }\)
(ii) Carbon disulphide reacts with chlorine gas in the presence of anhydrous AICl₃ as catalyst giving carbon tetrachloride
\(\underset { carbondisulphide }{ { CS }_{ 2 }+3C{ l }_{ 2 }\overset { anhydrous }{ \underset { Al{ Cl }_{ 3 } }{ \longrightarrow } } } \underset { Carbontetrachloride }{ { CCl }_{ 4 }+{ S }_{ 2 }{ Cl }_{ 2 } } \)

The Chlorination of methane is carried out by free radical mechanism. The initiation step to form free radical needs high energy which is supplied by light energy.
\(\mathrm{Cl}-\mathrm{Cl} \stackrel{h \nu}{\longrightarrow} 2 \mathrm{Cl}\)
So this reaction is not possible in dark.

Propane burns in excess of oxygen to form water and carbon di oxide.
CH₂CH₂CH₃ + 50₂ \(\rightarrow\) 3CO₂ + 4H₂O
      Propane

The bond energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to break one mole of a particular bond in molecules in their gaseous state.

Molar Mass of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
Acidity = 1
Equivalent Mass = \(\frac { Molar\ mass }{ acidity } =\frac { 40 }{ 1 } =40geq^{ -1 }\)

 (ii) \({ K }\overset { +7 }{ \underset { \underset { 3e^{ - } }{ \uparrow } }{ M } } n{ O }_{ 4 }+{ Na }_{ 2 }\overset { +4 }{ \underset { { 2e }^{ - } }{ \underset { \downarrow }{ S } } } { O }_{ 3 }\longrightarrow \overset { +4 }{ M } { nO }_{ 2 }+{ Na }_{ 2 }\overset { +6 }{ s } { O }_{ 4 }+KOH\)
\(\Rightarrow\) 2KMnO₄ + 3Na₂SO₃ \(\longrightarrow \)   MnO₂ + Na₂SO₄ + KOH
\(\Rightarrow\) 2KMnO₄ + 3Na₂SO₃ \(\longrightarrow \)  2MnO₂ + 3Na₂SO₄ + KOH
\(\Rightarrow\) 2KMNO₄ + 3NaSO₃ + H₂O \(\longrightarrow \) 2MnO₂ + ₃Na₂SO₄ +2KOH

H₂ = 1 + 1 = 2e^-
H⁺₂; = 2 - 1 = le^-
\({O}_{2}\) = 8 + 8 = 16e^-
\({O}_{2}^{-}\) = 8 + 8 + 1= 17e^-

The enthalpy change of a reaction either at constant volume or constant pressure is the same whether it takes place in a single or multiple steps provided the initial and final states are same.

Efflorescence is the spontaneous loss of water by a hydrated salt, which occurs when the aqueous vapor pressure of the hydrate is greater than the partial pressure of the water vapour in the air. This is the property of salts
Ex: Glauber's salt- Na₂SO₄·10H₂O
Epsom salt - MgSO₄·7H₂O

According to Avogadro's hypothesis: V \(\alpha\) n
\(\therefore \frac{V_{1}}{n_{1}}=\frac{V_{2}}{n_{2}}=\text { constant }\)
V₁ & n₂ are the volume and number of moles of a gas and V₂ & n₂ are a different set of values of volume and number of moles of the same gas at same temperature and pressure.

Gram equivalent mass of an element, compound or ion is the mass that combines or displaces 1.008 g hydrogen or 8 g oxygen or 35.5 g chlorine.

One mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as many elementary particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon -12 isotope.

a) Electrophiles:
Electrophiles are reagents that are attracted towards negative charge or electron rich center. They are either positively charged ions or electron deficient neutral molecules. All Lewis acids act as electrophiles.
Neutral molecules like SnCl₄ can also act as an electrophile, as it has vacant d-orbitals which can accommodate the electrons from others.

b) Nucleophiles:
Nucleophiles are reagents that has high affinity for electro positive centers. They possess an atom has an unshared pair of electrons, and hence it is in search for an electro positive centre where it can have an opportunity to share its elections to form a covalent bond, and gets stabilised.
They are usually negatively charged ions or electron rich neutral molecules (contains one or more lone pair of electrons). AII Lewis bases act as nucleophiles.

Raoult law states that. "in the case of a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component (A & B) of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
According to Raoult's law,
P_A \(\alpha\) X_A 
p_A = K X_A
When xA = 1, k = \({ p }_{ A }^{ 0 }\)
Where \({ p }_{ A }^{ 0 }\) is the vapour pressure of pure component 'A' at the same temperature
"The relative lowering of vapour pressure of an ideal solution containing the nonvolatile solute is equal to the mole fraction of the solute at a given temperature".

Derivation:
when sodium chloride is added to the water, the vapour pressure of the salt solution is lowered. The vapour Pressure of the solution is determined by the number of molecules of the solvent present in the surface at any time and is proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent.
P_solution \(\infty \) X_A
Where X_A is the mole fraction of the solvent
P_solution  = K X_A
When X_A = 1, K = P⁰ solvent
\({ P }_{ solvent }^{ 0 }\) is the partial pressure of pure solvent
P_solution = \({ P }_{ solvent }^{ 0 }\) X_A
\(\frac { { P }_{ solution } }{ { P }_{ solvent }^{ 0 } } ={ X }_{ A }\)
\(1-\frac { { P }_{ solution } }{ { P }_{ solvent }^{ 0 } } 1-{ X }_{ A }\)
\(\frac { { P }_{ solvent }^{ 0 }-{ P }_{ solution } }{ { P }_{ solvent }^{ 0 } } ={ x }_{ B }\)
Where X_B the mole fraction of the solute
( \(\because\) X_A + A_B = 1, X_B = 1 - X_A)
The above expression gives the relative lowering of vapour pressure. Based on this expression, Raoult's law can also be stated as "the relative lowering of vapour pressure of an ideal solution containing, the nonvolatile solute is equal to the mole fraction of the solute at a given temperature".

i) \(K_{p}=K_{c}(R T)^{\Delta n_{g}}\)
K_p = Equilibrium constant in term of partial Pressures.
K_c = Equilibrium constant in term of concentration.
R = Gas constant; T = Temperature
\(\Delta \mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{g}}\) = Difference between the sum of number of moles of products and the sum of number of moles of reactants in gas phases.
ii) Synthesis of HI:
\( \mathrm{H}_{2(\mathrm{~g})}+\mathrm{I}_{2(\mathrm{~g})} \rightleftharpoons 2 \mathrm{HI}_{(\mathrm{g})} \)
\(\Delta n_{g}=0 \therefore K_{p}=K_{c}(R T) \Delta n_{g}\)
\(K_{p}=K_{c}(R T)^{\circ} \)
\(K_{p}=K_{c} \text {. }\)

Homologous series: A series of organic compounds each containing a characteric functional group and the successive' members differ from each other in molecular formula by a CH₂ group is called homologous series. Eg.
Alkanes : Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆), Propane (C₃Hg) etc .
Alcohols: Methanol (CH₃OH), Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) Propanol (C₃H₇OH) etc ..)
Compounds of the homologous series are represented by a general formula Alkanes CnH_2n+2' Alkenes C_nH_2n, Alkynes C_nH_2n-2 and can be prepared by general methods. They show regular gradation in physical properties but have almost similar chemical property.