Social infrastructure refers to those structures which improve the quality of manpower and contribute indirectly towards the growth of an economy.
Education:
(i) Education is in Concurrent List.
(ii) The Ministry of Human Resource Development decides the education budget and education policy.
(iii) India follows a six-level system - nursery, primary, secondary, higher secondary, graduation and post-graduation.
(iv) We have the 10 +2 pattern.
(v) The education department consists of schools, colleges and universities imparting education to all.
(vi) Though the budget share of education is 3% of GDP yet the per pupil expenditure for school students is the lowest.
Health:
(i) Health is a state-government responsibility.
(ii) The Central Council of Health and Welfare formulates various health care projects.
(iii) India has the ayurvedic medicine, unani, homeopathy, allopathy and yoga.
(iv) Medical practicing needs a licensing from the Ministry of Health. All medical systems now are under one ministry viz AYUSH.
(v) Health status is better in Kerala but generally India's health status is not satisfactory

Poverty and inequality:
Amartya Sen studied about poverty and inequality, distribution of income among the people below the poverty line.
The concept of capability:
(i) Capability is the ability to transform Rawlsian primary goods to the achievement of well-being
(ii) This was a better index of well-being then commodities.
Entitlement:
(i) Sen included the concept of entitlement items like nutrition, food, medical and health care, employment, scarcity of food supply in times of famine.
(ii) All this is included in Amartya Sen's Welfare Economics.

Rao's examination of the "interrelation between investment, income and multiplier in an under developed economy" (1952) was his major contribution to macroeconomic theory.

In 1918, Ambedkar published a paper "Small Holdings in India and their Remedies", citing Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations", he differentiated "Consolidation of Holdings" and "Enlargement of Holdings".

It refers to an improvement in citizens' quality of life and well-being of a country which is measured by per capita income along with several other development indicators like Human Development Index, Physical Quality of Life Index and Gross National Happiness Index.

(i) Countries which have not fully utilized their resources like land, mines, workers, etc. and have low per capita income are termed as under developed economies
(ii) They are also termed as undeveloped countries or Backward Nations or Third World Nations.
(iii) Examples: Certain African countries, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Pakistan, Indonesia, etc.

Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Tidal Energy

Resources that cannot be regenerated. E.g. Fossil fuels - coal, petroleum, minerals, etc.

Social infrastructure refers to those structures which are improving the quality of manpower and contribute indirectly towards the growth of an economy.

The energy sources are classified under two heds based on the availability of the raw materials used, while generating energy.
(i) Non - renewable energy sources
(ii) Renewable energy sources.

The Nobel citation refers to Sen's contributions to social choice theory, development economics; study on poverty and famines and concept of entitlements and capability development (1998).
(i) Poverty and Famines-Sen's Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation" (1981) is both a theoretical and an applied work. In the book, several famines have been studied in the working of a general theoretical framework from an original angle. He examined various meanings. of poverty and drew attention to the incidence of absolute and relative deprivation.
(ii) Poverty and Inequality: Sen has carried out massive work on poverty and inequality in India. Sen's major point has been that the distribution of income/consumption among the persons below the poverty line is to be taken into account.
(iii) The concept of capability: The concept of capabilities developed by Sen has been cited as a better index of well being than commodities or utilities. Capability, as defined by Sen, is the ability to transform Rawlsian primary goods to the achievement of well being.
(iv) Entitlement: Sen has included the concept of entitlement items like nutrition, food, medical and health care, employment, security of food supply in times of famine. etc. He considered famine as arising out of the failure of establishing a system of entitlements.
(v) Choice of Technique: Sen's 'Choice of Technique' was a research work where he argued that in a labour surplus economy, generation of employment cannot be increased at the initial stage by the adaptation of capital-intensive technique. Conclusively, Amartya Sent more than just an economist, is an ethical philosopher; He is a lover of freedom and a humanist. He has focused on the poor, viewing them not as objects of pity requiring charitable hand-outs, but as disempowered folk needing empowerment, education health, nutrition, gender equality-safety net in times of distress; all are needed to empower people.

According to P.R. Brahmananda:" the great trinity of pre-independent and post independent Indian economists consisted of D.R. Gadgill, CN. Vakil and V.K.R.V. Rao. These scholars were imbibed with a missionary zeal and analyzed the Indian economic problems with a view to designing and propagating economic policies/programmes and plans to India's national advantage." V.K.R.V.Rao was a prolific writer. V.K.R.V.Rao was deeply interested in three large themes. They were:
(i) National Income,
(ii) Food, nutrition and the distribution of good; and
(iii) Employment and occupational distributions.
(i) National Income Methodology: As an applied economist, Rae's name is remembered for his pioneering work on the enumeration of national income of India. Rao was a pupil of J.M. Keynes and he worked with Colin Clark H.W Singer considered V.K.R.V.Rao as "the best equipped of all Keynes' pupils". He attempted
(a) to develop the national income concepts suited to India and developing countries generally;
(b) to analyze the concepts of investment, saving and the multipliers in an underdeveloped economy; and
(c) to study the compatibility of the national incomes of industrialized and underdeveloped countries. Rao's paper on "Full Employment and Economic Development" was 'one of the earliest contributions in the field of development towards employment.
(ii) International Food Aid: Rao was influential in creating ideas and shaping policy in the international attack on world poverty, not only through his contributions to the question of international aid and improved flows of external resources, but also through his activities in the field of food aid.
(iii) Support for Socialism: During the early phases of planning in India, Rao supported the case of a socialist India, where the state would control the commanding heights of the economy and the public sector would play a dominant role in economic development.
(iv) Rao's Views on Industrialisation: In his pamphlet "What is wrong with Indian Economic Life?" (1938), Rao gave the following reasons for low per capita income and low levels of per capita nutrition in India.
(a) Uneconomic holdings with subdivisions and fragmentation;
(b) Low levels of water availability for crops;
(c) Excess population pressure on agriculture due to the absence of a large industrial sector;
(d) Absence of capital;
(e) Absence of autonomy in currency policy, and in general in monetary matters encouraging holding of gold.
(v) Village Clusters: Rao felt that rural communities had to be given a viable base. Therefore he suggested that a cluster of villages should form a unit for rural development, so that both social and economic interactions between villages could develop, and they could effectively generate and fashion their own development with a more meaningful participation by people.
(vi) Investment, Income and Multiplier: Rao's examination of the "interrelation between investment, income and multiplier in an under developed economy" (1952) was his major contribution to macroeconomic theory. As a thinker, teacher, economic adviser and direct policy maker, V.K.R.V.Rao followed the footsteps of his great teacher, John Maynard Keynes.
(vii) Institution Builder: He founded three national level research institutes namely Delhi School of Economics, Institute of Economic Growth (both at Delhi) and Institute for Social and Economic Change (Bangalore).

Contributions of VKRV Rao:
V.K.R.V: Rao was deeply interested in three large themes. They were:
(i) National Income,
(ii) Food, nutrition and the distribution of good; and
(iii) Employment and occupational distributions.
(1) National Income Methodology:
As an applied economist, Rao's name is remembered for his pioneering work on the enumeration of national income of India. Rao was a pupil of J.M. Keynes and he worked with Colin Clark. H.W Singer considered V.K.R.V Rao as " the best equipped of all Keynes' pupils. He attempted
(i) to develop the national income concepts suited to India and developing countries generally;
(ii) to analyze the concepts of investment, saving and the multipliers in an underdeveloped economy; and
(iii) to study the compatibility of the national incomes of industrialized and underdeveloped countries. Rao's paper on "Full Employment and Economic Development" was one of the earliest contributions in the field of development towards employment.
(2) International Food Aid:
Rao was influential in creating ideas and shaping policy in the international attack on world poverty, not only through his contributions to the question of international aid and improved flows of external resources, but also through his activities in the field of food aid.
(3) Support for Socialism:
During the early phases of planning in India, Rao supported the case of a socialist India, where the state would control the commanding heights of the economy and the public sector would play a dominant role in economic development.
(4) Rao's Views on Industrialization:
In his pamphlet "What is wrong with Indian Economic Life?" (1938), Rao gave the following reasons for low per capita income and low levels of per capita nutrition in India.
(i) Uneconomic holdings with subdivisions and fragmentation;
(ii) Low levels of water availability for crops;
(iii) Excess population pressure on agriculture due to the absence of a large industrial sector;
(iv) Absence of capital;
(v) Absence of autonomy in currency policy, and m general in monetary matters encouraging holding of gold.
(5) Village Clusters :
Rao felt that rural communities had to be given a viable base. Therefore he suggested that a cluster of villages should form a unit for rural development, so that both social and economic interactions between villages could develop, and they could effectively generate and fashion their own development with a more meaningful participation by people.
(6) Investment, Income and Multiplier:
Rao's examination of the "interrelation between investment, income and multiplier in an underdeveloped economy" (1952) was his major contribution to macroeconomic theory. As a thinker, teacher, economic adviser and direct policy maker, Y.K.R.Y. Rao followed the footsteps of his great teacher, John Maynard Keynes.
(7) Institution Builder:
He founded three national level research institutes namely Delhi School of Economics, Institute of Economic Growth (both at Delhi) and Institute for Social and Economic Change (Bangalore).

The main economic ideas of Ambedkar:
The main economic ideas of Ambedkar may be studied under four broad headings:
(1) Financial Economics:
Much of the work done by Ambedkar during his stay abroad mostly during the period 1913-1923, was in the field of Finance Economics. Ambedkar divided the evolution of provisional finance into three stages:
(i) Budget by Assignment (1871-72 to 1876-77);
(ii) Budget by Assigned Revenue (1877-78 to 1881-82); and
(iii) Budget by Shared Revenues (1882-83 to 1920-1921).
(2) Agricultural Economics:
In 1918, Ambedkar published a paper "Small Holding in India and their Remedies". Citing Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations", he made a fine distinction between "Consolidation of Holdings" and "Enlargement of Holdings".
(3) Economics of Caste:
Ambedkar believed that caste was an obstacle to social mobility. It resulted in social stratification, He was of the firm view that- individuals must be free to change their occupations. Moreover, the caste system caused social tensions. The caste system has resulted in the absence of social democracy in India as distinct from political democracy.
(4) Economics of Socialism:
Ambedkar was a socialist. He was a champion of state socialism. He advocated the nationalization of all key industries and suggested state ownership of land and collective farming. He was for state monopoly of insurance business. Not only that, he advocated compulsory insurance for every citizen. There is no doubt that Ambedkar was a great economist. But his academic work as an economist was eclipsed by his greater contributions in the field of law and politics. Above all he was a great social reformer.