The chert, a fine grained sedimentary rock, was found in the region of Rohri in Pakistan. It was used by the Harappans for making stone blades and tools.

Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna and other river valleys.

The classification of these cultures is done on the basis of stratigraphic, chronological and lithic (stone tool) evidence.

Invasions, floods and shifting of the river course are also cited as reasons for the ruin of Indus civilisation.

The Great Bath is a tank situated within a courtyard. The corridors were present on all four sides and stairs are seen on the northern and southern sides. It was well paved with several adjacent rooms.

Evidence of ostrich has been found in some pre-historic sites of India. The egg shell of this bird had been used as beads and those from Patne have been dated to 25,000 BP. They are found in Bhirnbetka and Patne.

Flake industry was predominant in the Middle Palaeolithic period and tools such as scrapers, points and borers were made. Scrapers were used for wood and skin working.

The early Acheulian tools include polyhedrons, spheroids, hand axes, cleavers and flake tools.

The Indus people worshipped nature.
1. They worshipped the pipal tree.
2. Some of the terracotta figures appear to be mother goddess.
3. Fire altars have been identified at Kalibangan.
4. They buried the dead. Burials were made elaborately and evidence of cremation is also reported.
5. The Harappan burials have pottery, ornaments,jewellery, copper mirrors and beads.

Craft production was an important part of the Harappan economy.
1. Bead and ornament making, shell bangle making and metal working were the major crafts.
2. They made beads and ornaments out of carnelian, jasper, crystal, and steatite, metals like copper, bronze and gold and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
3. The beads were made in innumerable designs and decorations.

1. An interesting find is of a possible shrine, indicated by a block of sandstone surrounded by a rubble circle, similar to the contemporary shrines. Found at Baghor in Uttar Pradesh, it is the earliest known evidence of a shrine in India.
Write a note on Mesolithic sites in India
Mesolithic sites in India are found in Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama (all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka). Rock shelter sites are found in Lekhakia, Baghai Khor, Adamgarh and Bhimbetka. Coastal sites are seen at Mumbai, Teri sites of Thoothukudyin TamilNadu and Vishakapatnam, which have microlithic evidence.
Give a evidence for the farnaul.
1. The faunal evidence from this period shows that people belonging to this period hunted cattle, gaur, buffalo, barasingha, porcupines, sambar, chital, gazelle, hog deer, nilgai, jackal, turtle, fish, wild hare, lizard fox and monitor lizard. Bones of rhinoceros and elephant have also been found. They used spears, bow and arrow and traps. The paintings of Bhimbetka show that various animals were hunted and for this men and women went together.
2. The people used fire and perhaps roasted food. Domestic animal bones of cattle, sheep, goats, pig and dog have been found at Kanewal, Loteshwar and Ratanpur, and from Adamgarh and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh sites. Camel bones have been found from Kanewal.
Write a note on Early Dentistry in the Neolithic Mehrgarh
1. The human ancestors had knowledge of medicinal herbs and were capable of taking care of health for survival from the pre-historic times. As their ways of life changed, new diseases appeared and they had to find remedies.
2. From the Neolithic period, people began to eat ground grain and cooked food, which caused dental and other health problems. The earliest evidence for drilling human tooth (of a living person) has been found at Mehrgarh. It is seen as a prelude to dentistry.
Write an note on Geographical Area and the Settlements
The Indus civilisation and the contemporary cultures covered nearly 1.5 million sq. km area in India and Pakistan. The settlements of Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan- Iran border; Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north; Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh; India) in the east and Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation. Its core area was in the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.
Write an note on Indus Civilisation and Tamil Civilisation
1. The Indus Civilisation represents the first urbanisation of Indian history.
2. The origin and authorship of the Indus Civilisation are keenly debated historical questions. The Indus script has not yet been conclusively deciphered and hence the authorship is not certain. The graffiti found on the megalithic burial pots of South India and the place names presented are cited to establish the relationship between Indus and Tamil cultures.
3. The archaeological evidence points to several groups of people living in Tamil Nadu and South India continuously from the Mesolithic period. One cannot rule out the migration of a few groups from the Indus region. More research is necessary before arriving at any definite conclusion.
4. The towns of ancient Tamizhagam such as Arikamedu, Keezhadi and Uraiyur that flourished are part of the second urbanisation of India and these towns are quite different from the Indus cities.
 

1. Neolithic culture in Kashmir region was contemporary to the Harappan civilisation.
2. Two phases of Neolithic culture have been identified. They are termed aceramic and ceramic phases.
3. Aceramic phase did not have evidence of ceramics.
4. Ceramic phase shows evidence for the existence of pottery.
5. Seeds of wheat, barley, common pea and lentil have been recovered from the excavations.
6. People domesticated animals include cattle, sheep, goat, pig, dog and fowl.
7. Bones of wild animals such as red deer, Kashmir stag, ibex, bear and wolf suggest that they hunted animals.

The Neolithic period marked the beginning of agriculture and animal domestication.
1. Early evidence of Neolithic culture is found in the Fertile Crescent region of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges valley of India and also in China.
2. The introduction of domestication of animals and plants resulted in the production
3. Supply of a large quantity of grains and animal food.
4. The fertile soil deposited by the rivers enhanced the growth of agriculture, generating a surplus of grains.
5. Surplus food production played a major role in the rise of early civilisations. Large villages came to exist and pottery developed.
6. Permanent residences were built.

The planned towns of Harappa
1. A civic authority perhaps controlled the planning of the towns.
2. The Harappans used baked and unbaked bricks, and stones for construction.
3. The towns had a grid pattern and drainages were systematically built.
4. The houses were built of mud bricks while the drainages were built with burnt bricks.
5. Houses had more than one floor.
The planned towns of Mohenjo-Daro
1. The site of Mohenjo-Daro had a planned town, built on a platform.
2. It has two distinct areas.
3. One is identified as a citadel and another as the lower town.
4. The houses had bathrooms paved with burnt bricks and proper drains.
5. Some houses had stairs indicating the existence of an upper floor.
6. The houses had multiple rooms. 
7. Many of the houses had a central courtyard with rooms all around.