The cavalry was divided into two classes: the bargirs (soldiers whose horses were given by the state) and the shiledars (mercenary horsemen who had to find their own horses).

1. Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by people of the first,three orders in the social hierarchy became available to everyone.
2. Bhakti movement provided women and members of the lower strata of the society an inclusive path to spiritual salvation.
3. Literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse.
4. The poet-saints of this movement championed a wide range of philosophical positions, ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita.

Pindaris:
1. Pindaris were freebooters composed of both Muslim and Hindu bands.
2. The Subsidiary Alliance of the Company had led to the disbandment of thousands of soldiers and most of them joined them and swelled their numbers in central India.
3. The British proclaimed Pindari War.
Thuggees:
1. The Thugs were robbers operating between Delhi and Agra from the fourteenth century.
2. They were bound together by oaths and ritual and murdered unsuspecting travellers in the name of the goddess Kali.
3. Bentinck placed William Sleeman in charge of the operation to eliminate the Thuggee menace.
4. Between 1831 and 1837 more than three thousand Thugs were convicted.

• The Sri Vaikunda Swamigal's cult, which survives to this day, was organized in the 1830s.
• Born ina poor family (1809) at Sastankoil Vilai (now known as Swamithoppu), a village then in south Travancore (the present day Kanyakumari district), Muthukutti, spent his childhood in the village pial school, learning religious and moral texts:
• He also learnt the Bible and became well-versed in Christian theology.
• At the age of twenty two, Muthukutti, cured of a skin disease, after a holy bath in the sea during his visit to the Murugan temple at Tiruchendur (Thoothukudi district), claimed that Lord Vishnu had given him a rebirth as his son.
• On his return from Tiruchendur, assuming the new name of Sri Vaikundar, he practised austerities for two years. Soon his fame spread far and wide.

1. The Bhakti movement in Islam is called as Sufism.
2. The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh and Fakir are used for Muslim saints who attempted to develop their intuitive faculties through ascetic exercises, contemplation, renunciation and self-denial.
3. By the 12th century, Sufism had become an influential aspect of Islamic social life as it extended over almost the entire Muslim community.

1. Alaudin Hasan Bahman Shah was the founder of Bahmani kingdom. unruly in his kingdom and in establishing order.
2. His attempt to exact an annual tribute from the state of Warangal, the Reddi kingdoms of Rajahmundry and Kondavidu, led to frequent wars.
3. Bahman Shah emerged victorious in all these expeditions and assumed the title Second Alexander on his coins.

1. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, horse trade was brisk.
2. Marco Polo and Wassaff state that the kings invested in horses as there was a need of horses for ceremonial purposes and for fighting wars.
3. Those who were trading in horses were called kudirai-chetti.

1. Criminal law was more severe than that of the Gupta age.
2. Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice.
3. Banishment and the cutting of limbs of the body were the usual punishments.
4. Trial by ordeal was in practice .
5. Life imprisonment was the punishment for the violations of the laws and for plotting against the king.

1. The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies.
2. The king was also the sovereign ruler.
3. The king levied taxes out of agricultural surplus and redistributed it and ensured maintenance of law and order in a hierarchical society by force and coercion.
4. These features marked the formation of state in the Gangetic plains.

Based on research, two independent cultural traditions of hand axe (Acheulian) and pebble-flake (Sohanian) industries were, confirmed in India. Acheulian industry mainly had hand axes and cleavers.
1. The Sohan industry is considered to have used only chopper and chopping tools.
2. The Sohan industry gets its name from the Sohan river valley of Pakistan.
3. These two cultural traditions are not considered distinct any longer.
4. Recent studies argue that there was no independent Sohan tradition as Acheulian tools are found in the Sohan industry as well.

The provisions of the Subsidiary Treaty are:
1. All Indian ruler entering into Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to dissolve his own armed forces and accept British forces and a British Resident in his territory.
2. He had to pay for the British army's maintenance. If he failed, a portion of his territory would be taken away and ceded to the British.
3. The protected prince was to sever all connections with European powers other than the British, especially the French.
4. No European should be employed without the permission of the British.
5. No negotiation with any Indian power should be held without the Company's permission and
6. No other Indian power to interfere in its internal affairs.
7. Thus the states brought under the system became dependent on the Company in political and military matters, sacrificing their own sovereignty and status.

• Phule looked upon education ofthe masses as a liberating and revolutionary factor.
• Since women and deprived and downtrodden were the worst sufferers in the society.
• Phule argued that women's liberation was linked with the liberation of other classes in society.
• Equality between classes as also between men and women was stressed by Phule.
• During marriages he asked the bridegroom to promise the right of education to his bride

1. The Raja Krishna Dev of the Kakatiya dynasty with Warangal as capital constructed the Golkonda Fort on a granite hill.
2. During 1495-1496 the fort was handed over to Sultan Kali Kutub Khan as a Jagir (land grant).
3. He reconstructed and rechristened the mud fort into a granite fort and called the place Muhammed Nagar.
4. Later, the Golkonda fort came into the possession of the Bahmani dynasty.
5. Still later, the Qutub Shahi dynasty took over and made Golkonda its capital.
6. Golkonda fort owes much of its present grandeur to Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah, the fifth sultan of Qutb Shahi dynasty.
7. The subsequent generations saw Golkonda being fortified further with several additions and the formation of a beautiful city within.
8. By the 17th century, Golkonda was famous as a diamond market.
9. It gave the world some of the best-known diamonds, including the 'Kohinoor'.
10. The Golkonda Fort is located about 11 kms from Hyderabad on a hill 120 meters hight.
11. The Golkonda Fort is popular for its acoustic architecture.
12. The highest point of the fort is Bala Hissar.
13. There is said to be a secret underground tunnel which leads from the Durbar Hall to one of the palaces at the foot of the hills.

Sources of revenue were Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
The Chauth was divided into
25 percent for the ruler
66 percent for Maratha officials and military heads for the maintenance of troops.
6 percent for the Pant Sachiv (Chief, a Brahman by birth)
3 percent for the tax collectors
Customs, excise duties and sale of forest produce also yielded much income. Goldsmiths were allowed to mint coins on payment of royalty to the government and getting license for the purpose.
They had to maintain a certain standard. When it was found that the standard was not being met all private mints were closed in 1760 and a central mint was established.
Miscellaneous taxes were also collected. It included
Tax on land, held by Deshmukhs and Deshpandes.
Tax on land kept for the village Mahars.
Tax on the lands irrigated by wells.
House tax from all except Brahmins and village officials.
Annual fee for the testing of weights and measures.
Tax on the re-marriage of widows.
Tax on sheep and buffaloes.
Pasture fee.
Tax on melon cultivation in river beds.
Succession duty.
Duty on the sale of horses, etc.
When the Maratha government was in financial difficulty, it levied on all landholders, Kurja-Patti or Tasti-Patti, a tax equal to one year's income of the taxpayer.

1. The bhakti reformers preached the principles of monotheism (oneness of God)
2. They believed in freedom from the cycle of life and death. They advocated that the salvation could be attained only by deep devotion and faith in God.
3. They emphasized the self-surrender for obtaining the bliss and grace of God.
4. Gurus could act as guides and preceptors.
5. They advocated the principle of Universal brotherhood.
6. They criticized idol worship.
7. They stressed the singing of hymns with deep devotion.
8. Arguing that all living beings, including humans, were god's children they strongly denounced caste system which divided people according to their birth.
9. They condemned ritualism, pilgrimages and fasts.
10 They did not consider any language as sacred and composed poems in the language of the common people.

• The origin of the Palayakkarar (poligari) system dates back to the 1530s. It is believed that this system was practiced earlier in Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal.
• The literal meaning of Palayakkarar is the holder of a camp as well as the holder of an estate on military tenure.
• Prior to the enforcement of this system Servaikarars and Talayaris collected fees for police work.
• After the creation of palayams, the Servaikarars turned Palayakkarars and subordinated Talayaris to their authority.
• The Nawab of Arcot, who had borrowed heavily by pledging the villages in several parts of Tamilnadu, entrusted the task of collecting land revenue arrears to the Company administration.
• Yusuf Khan remembered as Khan Sahib, had been employed as commander of the Company's Indian troops. He was entrusted not only with the command of the forces, but also with the collection of revenue.
• At the request of the Nawab, a force of 500 Europeans and 200 sepoys was (1755), ordered to proceed into the countries of Madurai and Tirunelveli to assist him.
• The encroachment of East Indian Company administration into palayakkarar's authority aroused stiff resistance.
• Mafuzkhan (Arcot Nawab's elder brother) was appointed by the Nawab as his representative in those territories. Three Pathan officers, Nawab Chanda Sahib's agents, named Mianah, Mudimiah and Nabikhan Kattak, commanded the Madurai and Tirunelveli regions.
• They supported Tamil palayakkarars against Arcot Nawab Mohamed Ali. Puli Thevar had established close relationships with them.
• The palayakkarars of Uthumalai, Surandai, Thalaivankottai, Naduvakurichi, Singampatti, Urkad, Seithur, Kollamkondan and Wadakarai joined Puli Thevar's confederacy.
• With the promise of restoring Kalakkadu, Puli Thevar had already won over the ruler of Tranvancore to his confederacy.

1. Akbar began his life as an orthodox Muslim but adopted an accommodative approach under the influence of Sufism.
2. Akbar was interested to learn about the doctrines of all religions, and propagated a philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all).
3. Badauni, a contemporary author, who did not like Akbar's inter-religious interests, accused him of forsaking Islam.
4. Akbar had established an Ibadat Khana, a hall of worship in which initially Muslim I clerics gathered to discuss spiritual issues.
5. Later he invited Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains and even atheists to discussions.
6. In 1582, he discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness among different religions.
7. However, he did not give up his attempt to know the Truth. Akbar discussed personally with the leading lights of different religions like Purushotam and Devi (Hinduism), Meherji Rana (Zorastrianism), the Portugese Aquaviva and Monserrate (Christianity) and Hira Vijaya Suri (Jainism) to ascertain the Truth. Because of the discussions he felt that behind the multiplicity of names there was but one God.
8. The exact word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate the philosophy of Akbar is Tauhid-i-Ilahi namely Din Ilahi. Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally meant divine monotheism.
9. It can be considered a sufistic order but not a new religion. He had become a Pir (Sufi Guru) who enrolled Murids (Sufi disciples) who would follow a set pattern of rules ascribed by the Guru.
10. Thousands of disciples enrolled as his disciples. Akbar's intention was to establish a state based on the concept of secular principles, equal toleration, and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs.
11. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc, into Persian.
12. he Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda, the Bible and the Quran were translated into Persian. The Din Ilahi ceased to exist after Akbar.

Madras:
• Madras was ceded to East India Company in 1639 by the Raja of Chandragiri with permission to build a fortified factory which was named Fort St. George.
• This was the first landholding recorded by the Company on Indian soil. In 1645, the ruler of Golkonda overran the territories under the Company's control in Madras. 
• Aurangzeb conquered Golkonda in 1687 and brought the Company territories under Mughal rule. But the privileges granted to the English continued.
Within a short time Madras replaced Masulipatinam as the headquarters of the English on the Coromandel Coast.
Bombay:
• The island of Bombay, which Charles II had inherited as dowry, was transferred to the Company in 1668.
• The Charter of 1683 empowered the Company to raise military forces and the right to declare war or make peace with the powers in America, Africa and Asia. In 1688 Madras had a municipal government with a Mayor.
• In 1693 the Company obtained another grant of three villages surrounding Madras and in 1702 five more villages were granted.
Bengal
• In Bengal it was a long drawn struggle for the British to obtain trading rights. The Company obtained trading privileges from Shah Shuja, the second son of Shahjahan and the Governor of Bengal, but there Was no royal confirmation of such privileges.
• The trading rights for the British in Bengal were obtained only in 1680. Local officials interfered with the trading rights of the British and this resulted in the Company declaring war with the ruler representing the Mughals.
Calcutta:
• Peace was restored in 1690 and the Company established its first settlement at Sultanuti, a site which was fortified in 1696 and in 1698 the Company secured the zamindari rights over three villages, Sutanuti, Kalikata and Gobindpur in return for a payment of 1200 rupees a year.
• The fortified factory was called Fort St. William which became the headquarters of the Presidency in 1770.

1. Pandyas built different models of temples. They are sepulchral temple (e.gsundarapandisvaram), rock-cut cave temples and structural temples.
2. Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did not build any new temples but maintained the existing temples, enlarging them with the addition of gopuras, mandapas and circumambulations.
3. The monolithic mega-sized ornamented pillars are the unique feature of the medieval Pandya style. The early Pandya temples are modest and simple.
4. In these temples of the Pandya country, the sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa, Subramanya, Surya and Brahma are best specimens.
5. Pandyas specially patronised Meenakshi temple and kept expanding its premises by adding gopuras and mandapas.
6. The prominent rock-cut cave temples created by the early Pandyas are found in Pillayarpatti, Tirumeyyam, Kuntrakkudi, Tiruchendur, Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari and Sittannavasal.
7. Paintings are found in the temples in Sittannavasal, Arittaapatti, Tirumalaipuram and Tirunedunkarai.

1. Prithviraj underestimated the potential danger of the enemy.
2. In the Second Battle of Tarain, one of the turning points in Indian history; Prithviraj suffered a crushing defeat and was eventually captured.
3. Ghori restored him to his throne in Ajmer.
4. But on charges of treason he was later executed, and Ghori's trusted general Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as his deputy in India.

Types of Tenures	Nature of Holding
Nividharma	Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent, in North and Central India and Bengal.
Nividharma aksayana	A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of income derived from it.
Aprada dharma	Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipient is not permitted to gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either.
Bhumichchi dranyaya	Right of ownership acquired by a person making barren land cultivable for the first time. This land was free from any rent liability.
Agrahara grants	Given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free.
Devagrahara grants	A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants for the repair and worship of temples.
Secular grants	Grants made to feudatories of Guptas.

A closer look at the Sangam literature reveals that social differentiation is evident in the Marutham region.
1. The territorial associations are very clear in the case of the Muvendar, and their important position is corroborated by the Greco-Roman texts from the first century CE.
2. Warfare for territorial expansion was a major theme of Puratthinai
3. Evidence for taxation at the highways and in the port of Kaviripattinam is cited.
4. The Chera king is spoken as receiving the resources from the hills and the port of Musiri.
5. Trade played an important role between the late first century BCE and third century CE.

1. Right Views;
2. Right Resolve;
3. Right Speech;
4. Right Conduct;
5. Right Livelihood;
6. Right Effort;
7. Right Recollection;
8. Right Meditation.

1. The Neolithic cultures of South India have been found mainly in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka and the north-western part of Tamil Nadu.
2. These sites have been spotted in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra and Kaveri.
3. Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and Hallur in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram and Veerapuram in Andhra Pradesh and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu are the major Neolithic sites in South India.
4. Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh and Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in Karnataka feature ash mound sites.
5. Soft ash and decomposed cow dung layers are also found at this site.
6. The evidence of habitation in the form of houses and burials are found around the ash mounds.
7. Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh and Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in Karnataka feature ash mound sites.

• Albuquerque (1509-1515), the.successor of Almeida, was the real founder of the Portuguese empire in India.
• He defeated Yusuf Adil Khan, the ruler of Bijapur in 1510 and captured Goa.
• He developed Goa into a centre of commerce by making all the ships sail on that route.
• He encouraged people of all faiths to settle in Goa.

Social reform movements formed an integral part of the religious reforms primarily because all the efforts towards social ills like caste- and gender- based inequality derived legitimacy from religion.

• Three of his battles are important; the 1801 battle on Cauvery banks, the 1802 battle in Odanilai and the 1804 battle in Arachalur.
• The last and the final one was in 1805.
• During the final battle, Chinnamalai was betrayed by his cook Chinnamalai and was hanged in Sivagiri fort

The rulers of Warangal and Orissa to facilitate smooth administration, divided the kingdom into four territorial divisions called tarafs, each under a governor.

1. Tamil literature was dominated by Saivite and Vaishnavite literature.
2. Kumaraguruparar, a great Saiva poet, is said to have visited Varanasi in the late seventeenth century.
3. He composed important literary works such as Meenakshiammai Pillai Tamil and Neethineri Vilakkam.
4. Thayumanavar wrote highly devotional verses with compassion for all humanity and he formulated a sanmarga that tried to bridge differences between the various Saivite sects.
5.The Christian missionaries like Roberto de Nobili and Constantine Joseph Beschi contributed much to Tamil language

1. Iltutmish organized a Corps of Forty, all drawn from Turkish nobility and selected persons from this Forty for appointments in military and civil administration.
2. The Corps of Forty became so powerful to the extent of disregarding the wishes of Iltutmish, and after his death, to place Rukn-ud-Din Firoz on the throne.

1. Hieun Tsang recorded the fame of the Nalanda University. Students and scholars from the Buddhist countries like China, Japan, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Tibet
2. Some other countries of Central and Southeast Asia stayed and studied in the university.
3. Shilabhadra, a reputed Buddhist scholar, who probably hailed from Assam, was the head of the University during the visit of Hieun Tsang.
4. As an educational centre of international fame, Nalanda had 10,000 students on its rolls.
5. Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari, Jayasena, Devakara and Matanga were important teachers in the university receiving royal patronage.

1. Menander successfully attacked Pataliputra, but retreated without consolidating his conquest.
2. Interestingly, in his coins, he is described as "king" and "soter" or saviour, and not as a great conqueror.

Bimbisara extended the territory of Magadhan Empire by matrimonial alliances and conquests.

Women attended assemblies and offered sacrifices. Marriage was common but primitive practices were also continued. Polyandry seems to have existed, and widow remarriage was also known. People married at the age of 16-17, according to scholars, and there is little evidence of child marriage.