The grandson of Narasimhavarman, (who arose) from the kings of this race, just as the moon and the sun from the eastern mountain;
1. who was the crest-jewel on the head of those princes,
2. who had never bowed their heads (before);
3. who proved a lion to the elephant-herd of hostile kings;
4. who appeared to be blessed Narasirnha himself,
5. who had come down (to earth) in the shape of a prince;
6. who repeatedly defeated the Cholas, Keralas, Kalabhras, and Pandyas;
7. who, like Sahasrabahu (i.e., the thousand-armed Kartavirya), enjoyed the action for a thousand arms in hundreds of fights; who wrote the (three) syllables of (the word) vijaya (i.e., victory), as on a plate, on Pulikesin's back, which was caused to be visible (i.e., whom he caused to turn his back) in the battles of Pariyala, Manimangala, Suramara, etc., and who destroyed (the city of) Vatapi, just as the pitcher-born (Agastya) (the demon) Vatapi.

• The Dutch and the English were able to acquire territorial rights on the east coast during these years.
• They realized that they needed a base on the Coromandel coast to access the piece goods needed for trading with the spice-producing islands of Indonesia.
• The Dutch had successfully negotiated to acquire Pulicat (Palaverkadu) from the Nayak of Senji and constructed a fort there.
• The English got a piece of land further south from the local chief, Damarla Venkatadri Nayak on which they built Fort St.George in 1639.
• Thus an English settlement came up which eventually grew into Chennai (Madras), the capital of the Madras Presidency.

First Mysore War (1767-69)
• In the third Carnatic War Colonel Forde while conducting the forces from Bengal captured Masulipatnamm in 1759.
• This led to a treaty with Salabad Jung, who ceded the Northern Sarkars to the British (districts of Ganjam, Vizagapatnam, Godavari, Krishna and Guntur).
• English acquisition of the Northern Sarkars was legalized by a Mughal emperor in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad. In 1766, trouble arose when the English occupied those districts.
• Yet a treaty was signed with Nizam Ali who acquiesced in the session. In return the English promised to help out in case of any danger from the enemies.
• This promise meant English help to the Nizam against Haider Ali. Here lay the genesis of the later Subsidiary System.
• Despite the treaty, Nizam came to an understanding with Haider in 1767 and the British therefore declared a war against Haider.
• This is called First Anglo- Mysore War or First Mysore War.

1. In 1815, the Governor of Madras received a communication from the Governor of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) asking for coolies to work on the coffee plantations.
2. The Madras Governor forwarded this letter to the collector of Thanjavur, who after enquiry reported back saying that the people were very much attached to the soil and hence unless some incentive was provided it was not easy to make them move out of their native soil.
3. But the outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843) forced the people, without any prompting from the government, to leave for Ceylon to work as coolies in coffee and tea plantations under indentured labour system.
4. During 1843-1868, nearly 1.5 million people (1,444,407) had gone from Madras to Ceylon as indentured labourers.

Sher Shah's Reforms
1. When Sher Shah was pursuing Humayun, he had left Khizr Khan as the Governor of Bengal.
2. Khizr Khan married the daughter of the former ruler of Bengal, Sultan Mahmud, and started behaving like a king.
3. On his return Sher Shah ordered him to be put in chains.
4. As one familiar with the problem of provincial insubordination, he thought that the real solution to the problem would be to set up a strong administrative system.
5. So he made his government highly centralised. 
6. The local administrative structure of the Delhi Sultanate was followed with certain changes.
7. The village headmen who were made responsible for the goods stolen within the area under their control became vigilant.
8. The welfare of the peasants was a prime concern.
9. When the peasant is ruined, Sher Shah believed, the king is ruined.
10. Sher Shah took great care that the movements of the army did not damage crops.
11. He followed a flexible revenue system.
12. Land was surveyed and revenue settled according to the fertility of the soil.
13. In some areas, the jagirdari and zamindari systems were allowed to continue.

The overall contribution of Brahmo Samaj can be summed up as follows
• It denounced polytheism, idol worship, and the faith in divine avatars (incarnations)
• It condemned the caste system, dogmas and superstitions .
• It wanted the abolition of child marriage, purdah system and the practice of sati
• It supported widow remarriage

1. Namadeva, a son of a tailor and an inhabitant of the village of Naras- Vamani in Satara district of Maharashtra, under the influence of Saint Janadeva, was converted to the path of bhakti.
2. A staunch devotee of Vitthala of Pandarpur, Namdeva spent much of his time in worship along with his followers, chanting mostly in his own verses.
3. He wrote many abhangs (songs composed and sung by saints in Maharashtra in praise of God's glory) in Marathi and Hindi.
4. He travelled as far as Punjab where his teachings became so popular that they were later absorbed in the Guru Granth.
5. Love god with an your heart to lead a pious life surrendering everything to him with steadfast devotion is the essence of his message.

1. The Golkonda Fort also houses the tombs of the Qutub Shahis.
2. There are two individual pavilions on the outer side of Golkonda which serve as major architectural attractions .
3.The Fort comprises four other small forts within itself. It has cannons, draw bridges, royal chambers, halls, temples, mosques, stables, etc.
4. The Fateh Darwaza or the Victory Gate is the entrance to the fort. Aurangzeb laid siege to this Golkonda fort in 1687 for about eight months but in vain.
5. It was due to the treachery of an Afghan gate keeper, the fort finally fell.

Balaji Viswanath, his son Baji Rao I was appointed Peshwa in 1720 by Shahu.
Baji Rao enhanced the power and prestige of the Maratha Empire by defeating the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Rajput Governor of Malwa and the Governor of Gujarat.
He freed Bundelkhand from the control of Mughals and for this the Marathas got one third of the territories from its ruler.
The commander-in-chief, Trimbak Rao, who troubled the Peshwa, was defeated and killed in the battle ofDabhai near Baroda in 1731.
And the Peshwaassumed the office of the commander-in-chief also.
By the treaty ofWama signed in 1731, Sambhaji of Kolhapur was forced to accept the sovereignty of Shahu.
Thana, Salsette and Bassein were captured from the Portuguese in 1738 and they were driven out of the Konkan coast.
At the same time, the English made friendly overtures to the Marathas and got the right to free trade in the Deccan region.

• The origin of the Palayakkarar (poligari) system dates back to the 1530s. It is believed that this system was practiced earlier in Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal.
• The literal meaning of Palayakkarar is the holder of a camp as well as the holder of an estate on military tenure.
• Prior to the enforcement of this system Servaikarars and Talayaris collected fees for police work.
• After the creation of palayams, the Servaikarars turned Palayakkarars and subordinated Talayaris to their authority.
• The Nawab of Arcot, who had borrowed heavily by pledging the villages in several parts of Tamilnadu, entrusted the task of collecting land revenue arrears to the Company administration.
• Yusuf Khan remembered as Khan Sahib, had been employed as commander of the Company's Indian troops. He was entrusted not only with the command of the forces, but also with the collection of revenue.
• At the request of the Nawab, a force of 500 Europeans and 200 sepoys was (1755), ordered to proceed into the countries of Madurai and Tirunelveli to assist him.
• The encroachment of East Indian Company administration into palayakkarar's authority aroused stiff resistance.
• Mafuzkhan (Arcot Nawab's elder brother) was appointed by the Nawab as his representative in those territories. Three Pathan officers, Nawab Chanda Sahib's agents, named Mianah, Mudimiah and Nabikhan Kattak, commanded the Madurai and Tirunelveli regions.
• They supported Tamil palayakkarars against Arcot Nawab Mohamed Ali. Puli Thevar had established close relationships with them.
• The palayakkarars of Uthumalai, Surandai, Thalaivankottai, Naduvakurichi, Singampatti, Urkad, Seithur, Kollamkondan and Wadakarai joined Puli Thevar's confederacy.
• With the promise of restoring Kalakkadu, Puli Thevar had already won over the ruler of Tranvancore to his confederacy.

• The official religious policy of the East India Company was one of neutrality towards the native religions. Their reason for continuing this policy was the belief that the earlier Portuguese rule had come to an end because of their attempts to forcibly convert people to Christianity. As a result of this concern, the Company government prohibited the entry of missionaries into the territories under their control.
• In 1793 two English missionaries, William Carey and John Thomas, both Baptists, set out to India with the intention of starting a mission. In view of the ban on missionary activity they settled down in the Danish Colony of Serampore, north of Calcutta. Carey, along with two other missionaries, Joshua Marshman and William Ward established the Serampore Mission in 1799.
• The Serampore missionaries were the first evangelical Baptist missionaries in India. They were followed later by other missionary groups belonging to different Protestant denominations. Before the arrival of the Serampore missionaries, several centuries earlier, there were Christian missions in the Portuguese territory of Goa, and also on the Malabar Coast and the Coromandel Coast. The work of the earlier missionaries was limited both geographically and in terms of the number of conversions to Christianity. Thus major attempts at proselytization began during the nineteenth century.
• The missionaries organised schools for the socially and economically deprived and pleaded for their economic improvement through employment in the state service. They also fought for their 'civil rights' that included access to public roads, and permission for the women of these groups to wear upper garments.
• The missionaries gave shelter to orphaned children and other destitute widows in their missions and provided education for them in their boarding schools. Particularly after the famines which were quite common during the nineteenth century, about which we discussed in the previous lesson, the missionaries organized relief.
• Providing shelter and succour gave these an opportunity to convert people to Christianity. In Tirunelveli district many villages took to Christianity during famines, especially in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The same phenomenon was witnessed in Andhra where Malas and Madigas embraced Christianity in a big way.
• The Company government did little to provide modern education for the native population. For a long time, the provision of elementary school facilities to the native population, especially in the interiors for the disprivileged and the poor people, was a responsibility willingly accepted by the Christian missionaries. It must be noted that the Christian Missionaries took the intiative of establishing Hospitals and Dispensaries.

1. The king was the ultimate authority in the kingdom.
2. He was also the supreme commander of the army.
3. He was assisted by several high-ranking officers.
4. The chief minister was known as the mahapradhani.
5. He led a number of lower-ranking officers, like Dalavay (commander), Vassal (guard of the palace), Rayasam (secretary/ accountant), Adaippam (personal attendant), and Kariya-karta (executive agents).
6. As Harihara I and his immediate successors consolidated their territorial acquisitions, they tried to organize the territory by creating administrative divisions called rajyas or provinces each under a governor called pradhani.
7. Some of the prominent rajyas were the Hoysala rajya, Araga, Barakur (Mangalur), and Muluvay. As and when new conquests were made they were put under new, rajyas.
8. By 1400, there were five rajyas in the Tamil area: Chandragiri, Padaividu, Valudalampattu, Tiruchirappalli and Tiruvarur.
9. The pradhan was either a royal member or a military officer not related to the royal family.
10. The pradhani had his own revenue accountants and military to assist in his administration.
11. Within each rajya, there were smaller administrative divisions like nadu, sima, sthala, kampana, etc.
12. The lowest unit was of course the village.
13. The rajyas lost their administrative and revenue status under the Tuluva dynasty due to the development of the Nayak system under Krishadevaraya.

Mahmud ghasni:
1. One of the major kingdoms that emerged out of the broken Arab empire was the Samanid kingdom which also splintered, leading to several independent states.
2. In 963 Alaptigin, a Turkic slave who had served Samanids as their governor in Khurasan, seized the city of Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan and established an independent kingdom.
3. When Sabuktagin died in 997, Mahmud was in Khurasan. Ismail,the younger son of Sabuktagin had been named his successor.
Mohamed Ghori.
1. Muizzuddin Muhammad of the Ghori dynasty, known generally as Muhammad Ghori, invested in territories he seized.
2. Through the 1180s and 1190s Ghori established garrisons in the modern provinces of Punjab, Sind, and Haryana.
3. These centres of military power soon attracted the in-migration of mercenaries in search of opportunities.
4. These mercenaries were recruited to organize fiscal and military affairs of the Sultanate.
5. The Sultan's military commanders in north India were drawn from his elite military class.
6. Specially trained in warfare and governance these slaves were different from agrestic (related to land\field labour) and domestic slaves. Lahore, then Uchch and Multan were initially considered significant centres of power.

1. The Palas were great patrons of Mahayana Buddhism.
2. The Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra was the spiritual preceptor of Dharmapala, the founder of the Pala kingdom.
3. Bengal remained one of the few places where Buddhist monasteries continued to exist.
4. The kingdom as well as Buddhism soon suffered decline because of large-scale conversion of merchants and artisans to Islam.

Types of Tenures	Nature of Holding
Nividharma	Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent, in North and Central India and Bengal.
Nividharma aksayana	A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of income derived from it.
Aprada dharma	Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipient is not permitted to gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either.
Bhumichchi dranyaya	Right of ownership acquired by a person making barren land cultivable for the first time. This land was free from any rent liability.
Agrahara grants	Given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free.
Devagrahara grants	A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants for the repair and worship of temples.
Secular grants	Grants made to feudatories of Guptas.

1. Two major developments changed the contours of trade between Europe and India towards the beginning of the Common Era.
2. By the end of the last century BCE, Rome emerged as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, displacing the Greek kingdoms, and the republic became an empire in 27 BCE under Emperor Augustus.
3. Rome was the largest and, probably, the wealthiest city in the world commanding huge resources realised through conquests in Europe and North Africa.
4. The wealth of Rome greatly increased the demand for various products from India.
5. Especially the spices and textiles of the Tamil country, resulting in a great expansion of trade.

1. The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known as the age of Kalabhras in the history of Tamizhagam.
2. A group of inscriptions found at Pulangurichi in Sivagangai district datable to about the middle of the fifth century, name two kings. They are Chendan and Kurran. Though there is no mention about their family or dynasty name, some scholars identify them as Kalabhra rulers.
3. The Kalabhra kingdom seems to have been uprooted by Pandyas around the third quarters of sixth century CE.

1. The north-western part of India came under the control of the Persian Empire from about middle of the sixth century, the region became a centre of confluence of Persian and Indian culture.
2. The Persian contact left its impact on art, architecture, economy and administration of ancient India.
3. The cultural impact was felt most in the Gandhara region.
4. Most significant impact was the development of the Kharosthi script, used in the north-western part of India.
5. It was used by Ashoka in his inscriptions in the Gandhara region.
6. The Kharosthi script was derived from Aramaic used widely in the Achaemenid Empire of Persia.

Kacchayana believed that the world was made of seven substances that were unmade, irreducible, uncreated, barren, stable as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar that do not alter, do not change, do not interfere with one another, are incapable of causing one another pleasure, pain or both pleasure and pain.The Ajivikas had rich lay disciples such as potters and bankers. The Ajivika sect spread across the length and breadth of the country, though their influence was much less compared to that of Buddhism and Jainism.

The period before the development of script is called the pre-historic times. It is also referred to as the Stone Age.
1. Human ancestors are likely to have first evolved in Africa and later migrated to different parts of the world.
2. The earliest human ancestor species to migrate out of Africa was the Homo erectus.
3. Generally, the period before the invention of script is broadly divided into Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
4. The earliest age in history is called Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic.
5. This period is divided into
6. Lower Palaeolithic culture
7. Middle Palaeolithic culture
8. Upper Palaeolithic culture.
9. The period after the Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) is called the Mesolithic Age.
10. The period that followed the Mesolithic is called the Neolithic Age.
11. This is the age in which animal and plant domestication developed, leading to food production.