i) When Rajaraja I attacked Madurai, the Pandyas escaped with their crown and royal jewels and took shelter in Sri Lanka.
ii) There upon, Rajendra I conquered Sri Lanka and confiscated the Pandya crown and other royal belongings.

i) Raziya Sultana (1236-1240). Raziya was daughter of Iltutmish, who ascended the throne after a lot of hurdles put up by the Turkish nobles.
ii) According to Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller, Raziya rode on horseback as men ride, armed with a bow and quiver, and surrounded by courtiers. She did not veil her face. Yet Raziya ruled for only three and half years.
iii) The elevation of an Abyssinian slave, Jalal-ud-din Yaqut, to the post of Amir-i-Akhur, Master of the Stables, a very high office, angered the Turkish nobles.

• The Kongu country comprising Salem, Coimbatore, Karur and Dindigul formed part of the Nayak kingdom of Madurai but had been annexed by the Wodayars of Mysore.
• After the fall of the Wodayars, these territories together with Mysore were controlled by the Mysore Sultans.
• As a result of the Third and Fourth Mysore wars, the entire Kongu region passed into the hands of the English

1. The impoverished peasants and weavers went hoping to earn some money. But in effect it was worse than slave labour.
2. The colonial state allowed agents (kanganis) to trick or kidnap indigent landless labourers.
3. 150 indenture labourers "the innocent victims of a new system of slavery" were first taken from Thanjavur in 1828 to the new British coffee plantations in Ceylon.

Battle of Chanderi, 1528
1. The next significant battle that ensured Babur's supremacy over the Malwa region was fought against Medini Rai at Chanderi.
2. Following this victory Babur turned towards the growing rebellious activities of Afghans.

Swami Vivekananda was a personification of youth and boldness and referred to as the Morning Star of the Modern India. In the words of Valentine Chirol, 'the first Hindu whose personality won demonstrative recognition abroad for India's ancient civilization and for her newborn claim to nationhood.'

The cavalry was divided into two classes: the bargirs (soldiers whose horses were given by the state) and the shiledars (mercenary horsemen who had to find their own horses).

The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh and Fakir are used for Muslim saints who attempted to develop their intuitive faculties through ascetic exercises, contemplation, renunciation and self-denial.

The revolt took place due to the unjust and arbitrary tax demands of the government including the pradhani (governor), his military bodies, and the landlords.

1. Tamil region is more than probable that they exchanged their salt for other goods and necessities, rather than selling the salt for money.
2. However, the extent of the overland and overseas trade, as well as the descriptions of the city markets in the literature would imply that money was the main medium of exchange.

1. Menander (c. 165/145-130 BCE) was the best known of the Indo-Greek kings.
2. He is said to have ruled a large kingdom in the at Pataliputra.
3. Many historians argue that the elaborate administrative institutions of the Mauryan Empire drew inspiration from the administrative systems of the Persians and Greeks.

Kizhar:
Kizhar were the heads of the villages or a small territory, later known as nadu. They were the chiefs of tribal communities living in specific areas. The Vendar were kings controlling larger, fertile territories.
Velir:
The Velir, who were many in number, controlled the territories of varied geographical nature, mainly hilly and forest areas, that were in between the muvendar's fertile territories.

Karikalan's foremost military achievement was the defeat of the Cheras and Pandyas, supported by as many as eleven Velir chieftains at Venni. He is credited with converting forest into habitable regions and developing agriculture by providing irrigation through the embankment of the Kaveri and building reservoirs.

1. Spinning and weaving, especially of cotton fabrics, relying on the universal availability of cotton throughout India.
2. A great variety of cloth was produced in the country, ranging from the coarse fabrics used by the ordinary people for everyday use, to the very fine textures worn by the upper classes and the royalty.
3. The Arthasastra refers to the regions producing specialised textiles - Kasi (Benares), Vanga (Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai and many others.
4. Each region produced many distinctive and specialised varieties of fabrics.
5. Cloth embroidered with gold and silver was worn by the King and members of the royal court.
6. Silk was known and was generally referred to as Chinese silk, which also indicates that extensive trade was carried on in the Mauryan Empire.

1. The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies.
2. The king was also the sovereign ruler.
3. The king levied taxes out of agricultural surplus and redistributed it and ensured maintenance of law and order in a hierarchical society by force and coercion.
4. These features marked the formation of state in the Gangetic plains.

1. Agricultural surplus, the growth of crafts and trade, and the growing population led to the emergence of towns in the Gangetic plains.
2. This is called the second urbanisation in Indian history.

1. Political and administrative centres such as Rajgriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi and Champa
2. Centres of trade and commerce such as Ujjain and Taxila
3. Holy centres such as Vaishali.

1. Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan-Iran border;
2. Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north;
3. Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and
4. Daimabad (Maharashtra,India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation.
5. Its core area was In the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.

The Mesolithic people lived in semi permanent and temporary settlements.
1. They occupied caves and open grounds.
2. They buried the dead.
3. They had artistic skill.
4. They were spread over wider geographical regions.

The Middle Palaeolithic culture in India is dated between 3,85,000 and 40,000 BCE.
1. The Middle Palaeolithic sites are found in Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna and other river valleys.
2. The main features of the Indian Middle Palaeolithic period include the following:
3. The tools became smaller.
4. The decrease in the use of hand axes in relation to other tools.
5. Use of core preparation techniques in stone tool production.
6. Use of chert, jasper, chalcedony and quartz as raw materials.