1. The Jaina canonical literature at first took shape in Prakrit dialects. Sanskrit came to be the medium later.
2. Within a short time, Jainism produced many great scholars and by their efforts the Hindu itihasa and puranas were recast in Jaina versions to popularise their doctrines.
3. Vimala produced a Jaina version of Ramayana. Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas.

Archaeology is particularly important because excavations reveal the nature of urban morphology, that is, layout of the city and construction of buildings

• Surat continued to suffer due to the uncertain political conditions, and by 1750, the local merchants had begun to declare themselves to be "under the protection" of the Dutch or the English in order to feel more secure.
• Bombay therefore became a viable alternative as a trade centre, attracting merchants from Surat and other parts of Gujarat

• On 16 September reinforcements arrived from Palayamkottai. As the broken walls appeared vulnerable, the garrison evacuated and reached Kadalgudi.
• In a clash at Kalarpatti, Kattabomman's minister Sivasubramonia Pillai was taken prisoner
• The British forces followed up their victory with the reduction of Nagalapuram and other strongholds of the defiant chiefs to submission.
• On the appearance of the army the western Palayakkarars too surrendered.

1.Ibn Battutah a Moroccan traveller (1333-45),
2. Abdur Razzak from Persia (1443-45),
3. Nikitin, a Russian (1470-74),
4.The Portuguese visitors Domingo Paes and Nuniz (1520-35) provide remarkably rich information.

Outcome of the Third Anglo- Maratha War
The British abolished the Peshwai (office of the Peshwa) and annexed all the
Peshwa's dominions. But the jagirs of the fief holders were restored.
Until his death in 1851 Baji Rao II remained a prisoner with an annual pension.
Pratap Singh, a descendent of Shivaji, was made the king of a small kingdom carved around Satara.
The Maratha Confederacy organised by Baji Rao I comprising Bhonsle, Holkar and Scindia was dissolved.
Mountstuart Elphinstone, who had been Resident at Poona, became Governor of Bombay.

1. The Educational Dispatch of Charles Wood (1854) outlined a comprehensive scheme of education-primary, secondary, collegiate.
2. Departments of Public Instruction and a university for each of the three Presidencies were organized for the purpose.
3. University of Madras was established under this plan (1857), along with universities in Bombay and Calcutta.

The Singh Sabha Movement was formed in 1873, with a two-fold objective
• to make available modem western education to the Sikhs
• to counter the proselytizing activities of Christian missionaries as well as Hindu revivalists
• A network of Khalsa Schools was established throughout Punjab

Harsha's Relations with China
Harsha had cordial relations with China, The contemporary Tang emperor, Tai Tsung, sent an embassy to his court in 643 and again in 647 CE. On the second occasion, the Chinese ambassador found that Harsha had recently died. On learning that the throne had been usurped by an undeserving king, the Chinese ambassador rushed to Nepal and Assam to raise a force to dislodge the usurper. Later, the king who had usurped the throne was taken to China as a prisoner.

The southern part of India has not produced cultural evidence of a full- fledged chalcolithic culture. Perforated and spouted vessels have been found in some sites. Copper bronze tools like chisels and flat axes occur at these sites. Stone tools continued to be used in this area. Black on red ware pottery is found. These people survived through animal rearing and agriculture. Millets, pulses and horse gram were cultivated, and fruits, leaves and tubers were collected.

1. Traders founded guilds and called themselves as sudesi, nanadesi, ainurruvar and others.
2. Their main guild functioned at Aihole. Foreign merchants were known as Nanadesi.
3. It had a separate flag with the figure of bull at the centre, and they enjoyed the right of issuing vira-sasanas.
4. The jurisdiction of this guild stretched over entire south-east Asia.
5. The chief of this guild is registered in the inscriptions as pattanswamy, pattnakilar, and dandanayaka. Its members were known as ayyavole-parameswariyar.

First Mysore War (1767-69)
• In the third Carnatic War Colonel Forde while conducting the forces from Bengal captured Masulipatnamm in 1759.
• This led to a treaty with Salabad Jung, who ceded the Northern Sarkars to the British (districts of Ganjam, Vizagapatnam, Godavari, Krishna and Guntur).
• English acquisition of the Northern Sarkars was legalized by a Mughal emperor in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad. In 1766, trouble arose when the English occupied those districts.
• Yet a treaty was signed with Nizam Ali who acquiesced in the session. In return the English promised to help out in case of any danger from the enemies.
• This promise meant English help to the Nizam against Haider Ali. Here lay the genesis of the later Subsidiary System.
• Despite the treaty, Nizam came to an understanding with Haider in 1767 and the British therefore declared a war against Haider.
• This is called First Anglo- Mysore War or First Mysore War.

Naoroji argued that a great deal of wealth was drained to England in the form of Home Charges. The following constituted the Home Charges:
1. Incentive to the shareholders of the Company
2. Savings and the salaries of European officials, European traders and Planters remitted to England.
3. Pensions to those who retired from civil and military services.
4. The salaries of the staff and the Secretary to Home Government, India Office at London
5. Expenses on wars fought in India and interests for the loans obtained from the banks for the conduct of wars and for the building of railroads.

The Amatya or finance minister checked and countersigned all public accounts of the kingdom
The Walkia-Nawis or Mantrimaintained the records of the king's activities and the proceedings in the court.
Summant or Dabir or foreign secretary was to advise king on all matters of war and peace and to receive ambassadors and envoys from other countries.
Sachiv or Shuru Nawis or home secretary was to look after the correspondence of the king with the power to revise the drafts. He also checked the accounts of the Parganas.
Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha or Sadar and Muhtasib or ecclesiastical head was in charge of religion, ceremonies and charities. He was the judge of canon law and censor of public morals.
Nyayadhish or chief justice was responsible for civil and military justice
Sari Naubat or commander-in-chief was in charge of recruitment, organization and discipline of the Army.

1. Mirabai was born in Kudh of Merta district of Rajasthan. She was the great granddaughter of Rana Jodhaji, founder of Jodhpur.
2. She was married to Bhoj Raj, son of Ran a Sanga of Mewar.
3. She became a devotee of Lord Krishna, left the palace and began singing her songs (bhajans)and preaching the path of love on God.
4. Mirabai preached the worship of God in the name of Krishna and stressed that no one should be deprived of His divine grace on the ground of birth, poverty, age and sex.
5. Her devotional songs and lyrics constitute a rich cultural heritage. Her bhajans are sung with fervour to this day.
6. Her teachings carried the message of divine worship to almost every Hindu household.

• The official religious policy of the East India Company was one of neutrality towards the native religions. Their reason for continuing this policy was the belief that the earlier Portuguese rule had come to an end because of their attempts to forcibly convert people to Christianity. As a result of this concern, the Company government prohibited the entry of missionaries into the territories under their control.
• In 1793 two English missionaries, William Carey and John Thomas, both Baptists, set out to India with the intention of starting a mission. In view of the ban on missionary activity they settled down in the Danish Colony of Serampore, north of Calcutta. Carey, along with two other missionaries, Joshua Marshman and William Ward established the Serampore Mission in 1799.
• The Serampore missionaries were the first evangelical Baptist missionaries in India. They were followed later by other missionary groups belonging to different Protestant denominations. Before the arrival of the Serampore missionaries, several centuries earlier, there were Christian missions in the Portuguese territory of Goa, and also on the Malabar Coast and the Coromandel Coast. The work of the earlier missionaries was limited both geographically and in terms of the number of conversions to Christianity. Thus major attempts at proselytization began during the nineteenth century.
• The missionaries organised schools for the socially and economically deprived and pleaded for their economic improvement through employment in the state service. They also fought for their 'civil rights' that included access to public roads, and permission for the women of these groups to wear upper garments.
• The missionaries gave shelter to orphaned children and other destitute widows in their missions and provided education for them in their boarding schools. Particularly after the famines which were quite common during the nineteenth century, about which we discussed in the previous lesson, the missionaries organized relief.
• Providing shelter and succour gave these an opportunity to convert people to Christianity. In Tirunelveli district many villages took to Christianity during famines, especially in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The same phenomenon was witnessed in Andhra where Malas and Madigas embraced Christianity in a big way.
• The Company government did little to provide modern education for the native population. For a long time, the provision of elementary school facilities to the native population, especially in the interiors for the disprivileged and the poor people, was a responsibility willingly accepted by the Christian missionaries. It must be noted that the Christian Missionaries took the intiative of establishing Hospitals and Dispensaries.

1. The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was motivated by the policy of containing the growing influence of the Marathas, the rebellious attitude of the Shia kingdoms of Deccan like Golkonda and Bijapur and to curtail the rebellious activities of his son Akbar who had taken refuge in the Deccan.
2. Aurangzeb came to the Deccan in 1682 and remained in the Deccan till his death in 1707. The Adil Shahi ruler Sikkandar Adil Shah of Bijapur resisted the different forces sent by Aurangzeb.
3. Aurangzeb first sent his son Azam Shah (1685) but to no avail. Then he sent another son, Shah Alam to capture Bijapur.
4. Though Bijapur Sultan, a Shia Muslim, ably defended the fort, he lost in the end, because Aurangzeb himself entered the battlefield and inspired his forces to fight to the finish.
5. Golkonda was captured in 1687 after defeating the ruler Abul Hasan.

1. Pandyas built different models of temples. They are sepulchral temple (e.gsundarapandisvaram), rock-cut cave temples and structural temples.
2. Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did not build any new temples but maintained the existing temples, enlarging them with the addition of gopuras, mandapas and circumambulations.
3. The monolithic mega-sized ornamented pillars are the unique feature of the medieval Pandya style. The early Pandya temples are modest and simple.
4. In these temples of the Pandya country, the sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa, Subramanya, Surya and Brahma are best specimens.
5. Pandyas specially patronised Meenakshi temple and kept expanding its premises by adding gopuras and mandapas.
6. The prominent rock-cut cave temples created by the early Pandyas are found in Pillayarpatti, Tirumeyyam, Kuntrakkudi, Tiruchendur, Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari and Sittannavasal.
7. Paintings are found in the temples in Sittannavasal, Arittaapatti, Tirumalaipuram and Tirunedunkarai.

1. Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly from the cultivators. The village headman who traditionally enjoyed the right to collect them was now deprived of it.
2. The tax pressure of Ala-ud-din was on the rich and not on the poor.
3. Ala-ud-din set up the postal system to keep in touch with all parts of his sprawling empire.

1. According to historian Burton Stein, a centralised administration did not even exist under the powerful Guptas.
2. It was restricted only to the central part of the Gangetic plain between Pataliputra and Mathura.
3. Beyond that zone, there was no centralised authority.
4. The only difference between Guptas and Vardahanas is that the former had formidable enemies like Huns, while the latter had no such opponents. The copper plates of 632 CE record a gift of land to two Brahmans
5. The names of certain political personages with state power, as protectors of the gift,are mentioned in them. Some were mahasamantas, allied to the kin but of a subordinate status.
6. Others were independent maharajas but acknowledged feudatories of Harsha.
7. There was yet another category of rulers who pledged their loyalty to Harsha and professed to be at his service. This is the characteristic of Harsha's imperial authority in North India.

1. This regular interchange of ambassadors and correspondence, as well as the extension of the Mauryan Empire till Afghanistan, facilitated regular trade from India to the West as far as Egypt
2. Trade was carried on by the overland route via north-west Afghanistan (Bactria) and also partly by the coastal route along the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.
3. A variety of luxury goods, including ivory, tortoise shell, pearls, indigo and other dyes.
4. aromatic substances like spikenard or nard (a fragrant oil from the Gangetic region) and malabathrum (leaf of cinnamon, used as an aromatic) and rare woods were exported from India.
5. Thus, The rise of Indo-Greek kings in Western India strengthened trade and cultural contacts.

The polities of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas were pre-state chiefdoms. The arguments for the latter view are:
1. No social stratification is noticed.
2. Proper territorial association is absent.
3. Destructive warfare did not allow the development of agriculture and surplus production for the emergence of the state.
4. No evidence of taxation as in the governments of North India.

Kacchayana believed that the world was made of seven substances that were unmade, irreducible, uncreated, barren, stable as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar that do not alter, do not change, do not interfere with one another, are incapable of causing one another pleasure, pain or both pleasure and pain.The Ajivikas had rich lay disciples such as potters and bankers. The Ajivika sect spread across the length and breadth of the country, though their influence was much less compared to that of Buddhism and Jainism.

Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware culture is found in northern India dating to the Chalcolithic period. The OCP pottery has red slip and appears ochre in colour (the ochre colour comes off when the pottery is touched) and hence, it is called Ochre Coloured Pottery. It has black painted designs. The OCP comes in the form of jars, storage jars, bowls, and basins. The OCP sites produced copper figures and objects and therefore it is also known as "copper hoard culture." It is a rural culture and has evidence of the cultivation of rice, barley, and legumes. They also had pastoralism with evidence of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and dogs. The villages had wattle-and daub houses. They used copper and terracotta ornaments.

Tirunelveli region, which was part of the Pandyan kingdom, exported grain, cotton, cotton cloth and bullocks to the Malabar coast and had trade contacts with West and Southeast Asia

The Palas were great patrons of Mahayana Buddhism. The Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra was the spiritual preceptor of Dharmapala, the founder of the Pala kingdom.

The rest of the empire was divided into four provinces based at Suvarnagiri (near Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh), Ujjain (Avanti, Malwa), Taxila in the north- west, and Tosali in Odisha in the south-east .

A costal landscape caused by sand dunes. These soils may have originated in the Pleistocene epoch of the Quaternary period.

• Weaving was the second most important economic activity in the country, supported by subsidiary activities like spinning and dyeing.
• Manufacturing - that is, handicraft production - was carried on both in urban and rural areas. Luxury crafts, like metalwork, were urban based.
• Weaving was mostly done in rural areas. India had a great advantage in that cotton was grown in the country.

Diwani right -right to collect taxes on behalf of the Mughal emperor from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

This battle was won by Sher Khan and Humayun's army was completely routed, and he became a prince without a kingdom.

Social reform movements formed an integral part of the religious reforms primarily because all the efforts towards social ills like caste- and gender- based inequality derived legitimacy from religion.

1. In the early ninth century, the Rashtrakuta king, Govind III, invaded Kanchi during the reign of the Pallava Dantivarman.
2. Dantivarman's son Nandivarman III aided by western Gangas and Cholas, defeated the Pandyas at the battle of Sripurambiyam or Thirupurambiyam.

Allahabad Pillar inscription - describing Samudragupta's personality and achievements in 33 lines composed by Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit in Nagari script.