The rulers of Warangal and Orissa to facilitate smooth administration, divided the kingdom into four territorial divisions called tarafs, each under a governor.

1. Iltutmish organized a Corps of Forty, all drawn from Turkish nobility and selected persons from this Forty for appointments in military and civil administration.
2. The Corps of Forty became so powerful to the extent of disregarding the wishes of Iltutmish, and after his death, to place Rukn-ud-Din Firoz on the throne.

1. Mahipala I constructed and repaired several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya.
2. Gopala founded the famous monastery at Odantapura (Bihar).
3. Dharmapala established the Vikramashila and the Somapura Mahaviharas (Bangladesh).

In India,the term yavana was used to denote all person of Greek origin, including those of mixed race and even the Phoenicians.

Janapadas:
1. The janas who migrated eastwards began to settle down in various regions.
2. The janapadas fought with one another for resources and political dominance.
3. Some janapadas extended their territories and brought various janas within their jurisdiction
Mahajanapadas:
1. Territory, people, government and sovereignty are important elements of a state.
2. All these elements were found in some of the mahajanapadas.
3. The mahajanapadas represented the emergence of territorial kingdoms that ruled over people (jana).

Yajur, Sama and Atharva

The source for the study of pre-historic period include archaeological sites, geological sediments, animal bones and fossils, stone tools, bone tools, rock paintings and artefacts.

1. The term Nayak is used from thirteenth century onwards in Telugu and Kannada areas in the sense of a military leader or simply soldier.
2. Assigning the revenue of a particular locality to the Nayak for their military service is found in the Kakatiya kingdom during the thirteenth century.
3. This is similar to the iqta system practiced by the Delhi Sultanate at that time.
4. But in the Vijayanagar kingdom the regular assignment of revenue yielding territory in return for military service is clearly found only from about 1500 or a little earlier.

The taxes collected included irai, kanikadan, iraikattina-kanikadan and kadami. An important category of tax was kudimai.

1. Distinctions are made between amatyas and mantrins. While a mantri is generally understood to be a diplomat, amatya is a counsellor.
2. Mantri Mandala was a council of ministers. Rahasyadhikrita was a private secretary of the king.
3. Manikkappandaram-Kappan was an officer in charge of the treasury (Manikka - valuables; Pandaram - treasury; Kappan - keeper).
4. Kodukkappillai was the officer of gifts. They were central officers under the Pallava king. Kosa-adhyaksa was the supervisor of the Manikkappandaram-kappan. Judicial courts were called Adhikarna Mandapa and judges called Dharmadhikarins.
5. Fines are mentioned in the Kasakudi plates of Nandivarman Pallava as Karanadandam (fine in superior/ higher court) and Adhikaranadandam (fine in district level).

1. Criminal law was more severe than that of the Gupta age.
2. Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice.
3. Banishment and the cutting of limbs of the body were the usual punishments.
4. Trial by ordeal was in practice .
5. Life imprisonment was the punishment for the violations of the laws and for plotting against the king.

Kizhar:
Kizhar were the heads of the villages or a small territory, later known as nadu. They were the chiefs of tribal communities living in specific areas. The Vendar were kings controlling larger, fertile territories.
Velir:
The Velir, who were many in number, controlled the territories of varied geographical nature, mainly hilly and forest areas, that were in between the muvendar's fertile territories.

1. The caste system was very flexible and it was based on one's profession rather than birth during the rig vedic period but however it gradually became complex and caste system was associated with birth in subsequent period.
2. There was no concept of untouchabilities in rig vedic but it was a creation of later period. Shudra or the lowest caste was assigned the task of serving the upper castes.
3. Women were treated equal to men. Women were allowed to take part in political process. The birth of girl child was more preferred. However in the later vedic period the women were treated as second citizen and evil practices of child marriage,sati etc became prevalent.
4. The rig vedic people were mostly pastoral and lived in a small territory where they had a strong sense of brotherhood. Their polical life was democratic in nature.
5. The common people elected their king in samiti (local assembly).In the later period the democratic system declined and absolute monarchy emerged. Bigger kingdom began to annex smaller kingdom thus, rise in imperialistic tendency.
6. In the religious sphere the rig vedic people personified and deified the nature and worshipped them. Both men and women worshipped them. In later period religion became more complex with brahmins taking dominant roles and requiring number of expensive sacrifices which were out of common.

Mesolithic sites in India are found in Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama (all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka). Rock shelter sites are found in Lekhakia, Baghai Khor, Adamgarh and Bhimbetka.

1. The Subsidiary System increased the military resources and efficiency of the Company government.
2. The immediate result of this system was the discharge of thousands of professional soldiers by the political powers. The disbanded soldiers indulged in freebooting activities.
3. Pindaris (marauders) began to swell on account of the Subsidiary System.
4. In view of the guaranteed support to the Princes by the Company, the protective States mal-administered and paved the way for the annexation.

1. Akbar began his life as an orthodox Muslim but adopted an accommodative approach under the influence of Sufism.
2. Akbar was interested to learn about the doctrines of all religions, and propagated a philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all).
3. Badauni, a contemporary author, who did not like Akbar's inter-religious interests, accused him of forsaking Islam.
4. Akbar had established an Ibadat Khana, a hall of worship in which initially Muslim I clerics gathered to discuss spiritual issues.
5. Later he invited Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains and even atheists to discussions.
6. In 1582, he discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness among different religions.
7. However, he did not give up his attempt to know the Truth. Akbar discussed personally with the leading lights of different religions like Purushotam and Devi (Hinduism), Meherji Rana (Zorastrianism), the Portugese Aquaviva and Monserrate (Christianity) and Hira Vijaya Suri (Jainism) to ascertain the Truth. Because of the discussions he felt that behind the multiplicity of names there was but one God.
8. The exact word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate the philosophy of Akbar is Tauhid-i-Ilahi namely Din Ilahi. Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally meant divine monotheism.
9. It can be considered a sufistic order but not a new religion. He had become a Pir (Sufi Guru) who enrolled Murids (Sufi disciples) who would follow a set pattern of rules ascribed by the Guru.
10. Thousands of disciples enrolled as his disciples. Akbar's intention was to establish a state based on the concept of secular principles, equal toleration, and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs.
11. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc, into Persian.
12. he Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda, the Bible and the Quran were translated into Persian. The Din Ilahi ceased to exist after Akbar.

Conciliatory Policy towards Nobles:
Firuz Tughlaq followed a conciliatory policy towards the nobles and theologians. Firuz restored the property of the owners who had been deprived of it during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq.
Firuz Policy of No Wars:
Firuz waged no wars of annexation, though he was not averse to putting down rebellions challenging his authority.
Religious Policy:
Firuz favoured orthodox Islam. He proclaimed his state to be an Islamic state largely to satisfy the theologians.
Public Works:
Firuz undertook many irrigation projects. A canal he dug from Sutlej river to Hansi and another canal in Jumna indicate his sound policy of public works development.

1. Guild is a society or other organisation of people with common interests or an association of merchants.
2. There are several references in several sources to artisans, traders and occupational groups in the guilds.
3. Guilds continued as the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise.
4. The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis describe the organisation and activities of guilds.
5. They mention that the guild had a chief and two, three or five executive officers.
6. Guild laws were apparently laid down in written documents. The Brihaspati Srnriti refers to guilds rendering justice to their members and suggests that these decisions should, by and large, be approved by the king.

1. The edicts of Ashoka thus constitute the most concrete source of information about the Mauryan Empire.
2. There are 33 edict comprising 14 Major Rock Edicts, 2 known as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar. Edicts, some Minor Rock Edicts and a few Minor Pillar Inscriptions.
3. The Major Rock Edicts extend from Kandahar in Afghanistan, Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in northwest Pakistan to Uttarakhand district in the north, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west, Odisha in the east and as far south as Karnataka and Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh.
4. Minor Pillar Inscriptions have been found as far north as Nepal (near Lumbini).
5. The edicts were written mostly in the Brahmi script and in Magadhi and Prakrit.
6. The Kandahar inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic, while the two iriscriptions in north-west Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.

1. Right Views;
2. Right Resolve;
3. Right Speech;
4. Right Conduct;
5. Right Livelihood;
6. Right Effort;
7. Right Recollection;
8. Right Meditation.

The period before the development of script is called the pre-historic times. It is also referred to as the Stone Age.
1. Human ancestors are likely to have first evolved in Africa and later migrated to different parts of the world.
2. The earliest human ancestor species to migrate out of Africa was the Homo erectus.
3. Generally, the period before the invention of script is broadly divided into Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
4. The earliest age in history is called Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic.
5. This period is divided into
6. Lower Palaeolithic culture
7. Middle Palaeolithic culture
8. Upper Palaeolithic culture.
9. The period after the Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) is called the Mesolithic Age.
10. The period that followed the Mesolithic is called the Neolithic Age.
11. This is the age in which animal and plant domestication developed, leading to food production.