X-ray is used to visualise hollow organs and blood vessels by filling them with certain chemical formulations containing barium and iodine.

The modem electronic stethoscope is a high precision instrument used to hear with clarity the internal sounds of the human body even in a noisy environment or through the heavy clothing of the patient.

The nitrogenous waste formed as a result of breakdown of amino acid is converted to urea in the liver by the ornithine or urea cycle.

In Dicot stem, a few layers of sclerenchyma cells occur in patches outside the phloem in each vascular bundle. This patch of sclerenchyma is called Bundle cap or Hard bast.

(i) They are analogous to companion cells of phloem (Angiosperms).
(ii) They have cytoplasm, nucleus and are: parenchymatous, seen with sieve cells (Phloem) of Gymnosperms.

It helps in reducing transpiration rate by closing stomata. It inhibits K⁺ uptake by guard cells and promotes the leakage of malic acid. It results in closure of stomata.

Plants growing in tropical regions are exposed to an optimum temperature of 30°C to 45°C.
Anatomically these plants have Kranz anatomy and dimorphic chloroplasts. The vascular bundles are surrounded by a layer at bundle sheath. Bundle sheath is surrounded by a ring of Mesophyll cells.
Dimorphic Chloroplast :Bundle sheath chloroplast are larger and thylakoids are not arranged in granum.
Mesophyll Chloroplast are small and thylakoids are arranged in granum.
Plants with this kind of anatomy have the C₄ cycle or Hatch and slack pathway which takes place in two phases.
First phase in stroma of mesophyll cells and phase II in Bundle sheath cells.
Advantage of this cycle is that fixation of carbon di oxide by such plants can occur ever when the atmospheric carbon di oxide concentration is less than 10ppm.
But the cycle consumes 30 ATPs to produce one glucose molecule.

The curve showing the rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light is called action spectrum.

1) Abscission separates dead parts of the plant like old leaves and ripe fruits. 
2) It helps in dispersal of fruits and continuing the life cycle of the plant.
3) Abscission of leaves in deciduous plants helps in water conservation during summer.

(i) It is a poor conductor of heat.
(ii) Can be transported to long distances.
(iii) Wood is able to absorb vibrations and shock and used in making railway sleepers.
(iv) Does not show any rusty spots and tolerates compression, pull, bending etc.

They are angiosperms but follow saprophytic mode of nutrition. They absorb nutrients through mycorrhizal association.

If the respiratory substrate carbohydrate is incompletely oxidised the RQ value will be infinity
\(\underset { Glucose }{ { C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 12 }{ O }_{ 6 } } \rightarrow 2C{ O }_{ 2 }\uparrow +\underset { Ethyl\quad alcohol }{ 2{ C }_{ 2 }{ H }_{ 5 }OH+Energy } \)
RQ of glucose Anaerobically = \(\frac { 2 \ molecules \ of \ C{ O }_{ 2 } }{ zero \ molecule \ of \ { O }_{ 2 } } \)
= \(\infty \)(infinity

Citric acid cycle takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. The enzymes necessary for TCA cycle are found in mitochondrial matrix except succinate dehydrogenase enzyme which is found in mitochondrial inner membrane.

Fertilizers containing Nitrogen, Phosphate with Potassium in different proportions are called NPK fertilizers.

1. The swelling of dry seeds
2. The swelling of wooden windows, tables, doors due to high humidity during the rainy season.

The word "Porous" is used by the wood anatomists to refer to the appearance of the vessels as pores in transverse section.

1. Pacemaker is a medical device which uses electrical impulses, delivered by electrodes contracting the heart muscles, to regulate the beating of the heart.
2. The primary purpose of a pacemaker is to maintain an adequate heart rate, either because the heart's natural pacemaker is not fast enough, or because there is a block in the hearts electrical conducting system.

Normal RBC ranges are:
1. Male: 4.7 to 6.1 million cells per microliter
(cells/mcL ).
2. Female: 4.2 to 5.4 million cells / mcL. .
Normal WBC range: 4.5 to 11.0 x 109/ L

Rh factor is a protein (D antigen) present on the surface of the red blood cells in majority (80%) of humans. This protein is similar to the protein present in Rhesus monkey, hence the term Rh. Individuals who carry the antigen D on the surface of the red blood cells are Rh" (Rh positive) and the individuals who do not carry antigen D, are Rh- (Rh negative). Rh factor compatibility is also checked before blood transfusion. when a pregnant women is Rh and the foetus is Rh" incompatibility (mismatch) is observed. During the first pregnancy, the Rh antigens of the foetus does not get exposed to the mother's blood as both their blood are separated by placenta. However, small amount of the foetal antigen becomes exposed to the mother's blood during the birth of the first child. The mother's blood starts to synthesize D antibodies. But during subsequent pregnancies the Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh") enters the foetal circulation and destroys the foetal RBCs. This becomes fatal to the foetus because the child suffers from anaemia and jaundice. This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis. This condition can be avoided by administration of anti D antibodies (Rhocum) to the mother immediately after the first child birth.

The thin squamous epithelial cells of the alveoli are composed of Type I and Type II cells. Type I cells are very thin so that gases can diffuse rigidly through them. Type II calls are thicker. They synthesize and secrete a substance called surfactant. It lowers the surface tension in the alveoli and prevents pulmonary edema.

Ostrich, kiwi, penguin.

Simple epithelium	Compound epithelium
1. It consists of a simple layer. 2. It helps in protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion and sensory reception.	1. It is multilayered. 2. It provides protection against chemical and mechanical stresses.

The symbiotic association between fungal mycelium and roots of plants is called as mycorrhiza.

After synthesis, the protein attains conformational change into a specific 3D form for proper functioning.

Acid Hydrolases, Nuclease, Proteases, Glycosidases, Lipases, Phosphatases, Sulphatases, Phospholipidases.

Certain chemical components act as inhibitors of the mitotic cell division and they are called mitotic poisons.

The factors which promote cell cycle proliferation is called mitogen. Example: gibberellin. These increase mitotic rate.

The random distribution of homologous chromosomes in a cell in Metaphase I is called independent assortment.

Mitosis is divided into four stages prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

Causes unequal distribution of chromosomes.
Can lead to abnormalities in metabolism and reproduction.

Maturation Promoting Factor (MPF) brings about condensation of interphase chromosomes into the mitotic form.

G₀ stage is called as quiescent stage, where the cells remain metabolically active without proliferation.

Mitosis and Meiosis.

(a) Vascular tissues - Pteridophytes
(b) Seeds inside fruits- Angiosperms .
(c) Heterospory - Pteridophytes

Musa is a monocarpic perennial since it produces flowers and fruits only once and die after a vegetative growth of several years.

Fragmentation, resting buds, root tubers and adventitious buds.

The first stage of cell wall construction is a line dividing the newly forming cells called a cell plate.

The alignment of chromosome into compact group at the equator of the cell is known as metaphase plate.

The number of chromosomes in the parent and the daughter cells remain the same so it is also called as equational division.

Causes unequal distribution ofchromosomes.
Can lead to abnormalities inmetabolism and reproduction.

1. Chromosomes are the carriers of genetic information. Increased knowledge about the chromosomes have been used for extensive biosystematic studies and resolving many taxonomic problems.
2. Utilization of the characters and phenomena of cytology for the explanation of taxonomic problem is known as cytotaxonomy or karyotaxonomy.
3. The characters of chromosome such as number, size, morphology and behaviour during meiosis have proved to be of taxonomic value.

A fleshy lndehiscent fruit developing from rnulticarpellary, multilocular inferior ovary whose pericarp is tough and leathery. Seeds are attached irregularly with testa being the edible portion. Example: Pomegranate.

1. Series (i) Inferae: The flowers are epigynous and with inferior ovary. Inferae includes 3 orders and 9 families.
2. Series (ii) Heteromerae: The flowers are hypogynous, superior ovary and with more than two carpels. Heteromerae includes 3 orders and 12 families.
3.Series (iii) Bicarpellatae: The flowers are hypogynous, superior ovary and with two" carpels. Bicarpellatae includes 4 orders and 24 families.

In holocarpic forms the entire thallus is converted into reproductive structure whereas in Eucarpic some regions of the thallus are involved in the reproduction other regions remain vegetative.

Plants that are living in water environment are called aquatic plants or hydrophytes.

Body is covered by chitinous exoskeleton for protection and to prevent water loss, It is shed off periodically by a process called moulting or ecdysis.

Lampito mauritti helps in recycling of dead and decayed plant material by feeding on them. Artificial rearing or cultivation of earthworms involves new technology for the betterment of human beings. This process is known as Vermiculture.

The Areolar connective tissue beneath the skin acts as a support framework for epithelium and acts as a reservoir of water and salts for the surrounding body tissues, hence aptly called tissue fluid.

(i) Morphology: Morphology refers to the study of form or externally visible features.
(ii) Anatomy: The word anatomy is used for the study of internal organs in the animals.

The increase in pulmonary volume and decrease in the intrapulmonary pressure forces the fresh air from outside. to enter the air passages into the lungs to equalize the pressure. This process is called inspiration.

It is a taxonomic category which includes a group of related genera with less similarity as compared to genus and species. For example, the family Felidae includes the genus Felis (cats) and the genus, Panthera (lions, tigers, leopards).

This is present only in plant cells. No asters or centrioles are formed only spindle fibres are formed during cell division.

The factors which promote cell cycle proliferation is called mitogen: Plant mitogens include gibberellin, ethylene, Indole acetic acid, kinetin. These increase mitotic rate.

The stage between the two meiotic divisions that is Meiosis I and Meiosis II is called interkinesis which is short lived.

Bivalent (pairs of homologous chromosomes) aligned at the equator of the cell known as metaphase plate.

Leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis.

Amitosis is also called direct or incipient cell division. Here there is no spindle formation and chromatin material does not condense.

In meiosis, the daughter cells contain half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell and is known as haploid state (n).

Axis develops on only one side and forms a coil structure at least at the earlier development stage. Example: Hamelia, potato

Growth in plants can be measured in terms of,
1) Increase in length or girth (roots and stems)
2) Increase in fresh or dry weight
3) Increase in area or volume (fruits and leaves)
4) Increase in number of cells produced.

(i) Group A shows maximum photosynthesis. chlorophyll pigments of the spectrum is (400 - 450 nm), hence the photosynthesis is high.
(ii) Group B will show negligible amount of photosynthesis, because chlorophyll does not absorb any light in this region (500 - 550nm). It reflects green.

(i) Mineral deficiency of plant A is due to Molybdenum
(ii) Mineral deficiency of plant B is due to Zinc

In the spring season, because cambium is very active and produces a large number of xylary elements having vessels / tracheids with wide lumen.

(i) If the bark of a tree is damaged by the horn of a deer, the tree first seals the damaged region from microbial infection.
(ii) This happens by altering the chemistry of the affected area by forming a callus, which grows and covers the damaged area.

The cells of sclerenchyma & tracheids become dead because they lack protoplasm

Fibrous joints, Cartilaginous joints, Synovial joints.

Linear movement of the body - Utricle and saccule in inner ear.

The effect of peptide hormones like insulin, glucagon, somatotropin are usually short lived because they work through second messenger system

1. Cortisol is a glucocorticoids involved in maintaining cardiovascular and kidney functions.
2. It produces anti-inflammatory reactions and suppresses the immune response

1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid
3. Pia mater

(i) The cornea is the only tissue in the body that can be transplanted from one person to another with little or no possibility of rejection.
(ii) This is because cornea does not have blood vessels.

1. When we cry, tears are secreted by lacrymal gland under the eyelids and drain through the tear ducts which empty into the nose.
2. Tears mix with ntucus and we have a running nose.

(i) CCK is known as Cholecystokinin.
(ii) CCK is secreted by a group of specialized endocrine cells in duodenum in response to the presence of fat and acid in the diet.
(iii) CCK acts on the gall bladder to release bile into duodenum and stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and its discharges.

(i) Hormones coordinate different physical, physiological, mental activities and maintain homeostasis.
(ii) Maintenance of constant internal environment of the body by the different coordinating system.

1. Deep water culture
2. Media based method
3. Nutrient Film technique
4. Aqua vertical

Langstroth and Newton.

Pelvic girdle-Innominate (Ilium, ischium and pubis fused into one bone).

Advantages of artificial insemination are:
1. It increases the rate of conception.
2. It avoids genital diseases.
3. Semen can be collected from injured bulls which have desirable traits.
4. Superior animals located apart can be bred successfully.

Trees on which Lac insect grow
1. Acacia catechu [Karanagalli]
2. Schleichera oleosa [Kumbadiri]

The muscle contracts when the myosin shifts. The lack of ATP after death prevents it from relaxing and the muscle remains contracted. Such process occurs in all muscles and the body becomes rigid.

A. I Bands.

The Ammonotelic animals produce ammonia as nitrogenous waste product during excretion. Ammonia dissolves in water easily and hence this type of excretion is common in aquatic animals

Aldosterone maintains renal blood flow to the kidneys. It is produced as medullary adrenal hormone in the adrenal gland of kidney.

Cortical nephrons	Medullary nephrons
Bowman's capsule malpighian capsule is present.	Tubular part of nephrons is present.
Glomerular filtration occurs.	Absorption, re-absorption and secretion occurs.

(i) Entry of air with high pressure may collapse the tracheal tree.
(ii) The smooth muscles which contract and relax to adjust the diameter of air passage with a typical resistance against airways under normal pressure.

S.No.	Animals	Respiratory organs
1.	Flatworm	Skin or body surface
2.	Earthworm	Moist skin
3.	Fish	Gills
4.	Prawn	Gills
5.	Cockroach	Trachea
6.	Cat	Lungs

1. The salivary glands present in our mouth produce saliva. Hence our mouth becomes watery.
2. The entry of food into the mouth triggers the brain cells which instructs the salivary gland to produce saliva. Saliva helps to soften the food.

Islets of Langerhans form the endocrine part of the pancreas. They produce hormones called insulin and glucagon.

(i) In stomach digested food is incompletely formed so that cannot be absorbed.
(ii) Finger like projections called villi are not found in the wall of stomach.
(iii) The concentration gradient by active transport cannot be created in stomach.

1. The neutrophils (WBC) are phagocytic in nature and appear in large numbers in and around the infected tissues.
2. The damaged tissues and dead leucocytes are removed from the body in the form of "Pus".

(i) Right ventricular wall is thinner because the pulmonary artery transports deoxygenated blood to lungs so that much force/pressure is not needed.
(ii) Left ventricular wall is thicker because the aorta has to pump out the blood from the heart to supply oxygenated blood to all the parts of the body and needs more pressure.

S.No.	Mitral Valve	semilunar Valve
1.	Found between left atrium and left ventricle.	Found at the entry of pulmonary artery and aorta.
2.	Has two flaps or cusps.	Has three flaps or cusps.
3.	Appear as flaps.	Appear as half moon shaped.
4.	Prevents the backword flow of oxygenated blood from left ventricle to left atrium.	Prevents the backward flow of deoxygenated blood into right ventricle and oxygenated blood into left ventricle.
5.	Also called as bicuspid valve.	Also called as pulmonary or aortic valves.

(i) Ommatidia are the visual units of compound eyes of cockroach.
(ii) Each ommatidium is functional as an eye unit.
(iii) Photoreceptors are dorsally found.
(iv) Each compound eye consists of 2000 simple eyes called ommatidia.
(v) All the visual images captured by ommatidia are made into a single coherent picture by supra oesophageal ganglion (brain).

(i) Earthworm has aerobic respiration.
(ii) Moist skin due to coelomic fluid promotes respiration (cutaneous)
(iii) Skin functions due to blood supply of integumentary blood vessels
(iv) Respiration or breathing stops if earthworm's skin is dried

White Adipose Tissue	Brown Adipose Tissue
1. Tissue contains less mitochondria.	Tissue contains more mitochondria.
2. Stores nutrients	Converts fats into heat energy which heat the blood stream to warm the body.
3. No non-shivering thermogenesis.	Non-shivering thermogenesis.

(i) Pseudo-stratified epithelial cells are columnar, but unequal in size. Although the epithelium is single layered yet it appears to be multi-layered because the nuclei lie at different levels in different cells.
(ii) Hence, it is also called pseudostratified epithelium and its functions are protection, secretion and absorption.
(iii) Ciliated forms line the trachea and the upper respiratory tract.
(iv) The non ciliated forms, line the epididymis, large ducts of a glands and tracts of male urethra

(i) In fishes air bladder may be or may not be connected with alimentary canal/gut.
(ii) It helps in gaseous exchange in lung fishes.
(iii) It also maintain buoyancy in most of the ray finned fishes.

e-Taxonomic resources - INOTAXA is an electronic resource for digital images and description about the species which was developed by Natural History Museum, London. INOTAXA means INtegrated Open TAXonomic Access

Mule is sterile and cannot yield its offsprings because it is born from the cross made between different species like Male Donkey and Female Horse.

1. Holocentric Chromosomes have centromere activity distributed along the whole surface of the Chromosome during mitosis.
2. Holocentric condition can be seen in Caenorhabditis elegans (transparent nematode) and many insects.

1. Meiosis is essential in sexually reproducing organisms because it keeps the chromosome number constant during formation of gametes / spores.
2. This ensures constant number of chromosomes in parent and offsprings.

(i) In closed mitosis, the nuclear envelope remains intact and Chromosomes migrate to opposite poles of a spindle within the nucleus.
(ii) Eg : Many single celled eukaryotes like yeast and slime molds.

1. Anaphase-promoting complex cyclosome (APC/C) is a ubiquitin ligase.
2. It is a cluster of proteins that induces breaking down of cohesion proteins thus facilitating the separation of chromatids during mitosis.

(i) Root climbers: Plants climbing with the help of adventitious roots (arising from node). Eg: Piper betel,Piper nigrum, Pothos.
(ii) Stem climbers: These climbers lack specialised structure for climbing and the stem itself coils around the Support. Eg: Ipomoea, Clitoria, Quisqualis.

(a) A sterile stamen  -   Staminode (b) Stamens are united in one bunch  - Monadelphous (c) Stamens are attached to the petals  - Epipetalous

Nitrogenous base	Inorganic base
In nitrogenous base the basic character is because of lone pair electron called lewis base	Inorganic base is because of hydroxyl ion that is Arrhenius base
Eg: Pyridine, Pyrimidine	Eg: NaOH

Category	Compound
Nucleoside	Uracil

A Nitrogenous base is linked to pentose sugar through a n-Glycosidic linkage and forms a nucleoside.

(i) Corti first observed protoplasm Felix Dujardin (1835) observed a living juice in animal cell and called it "Sarcode". Purkinje (1839) coined the term protoplasm for sap inside a plant cell. Hugo Van Mohl (1846) indicated importance of protoplasm.
(ii) Max Schultze (1861) established similarity between Protoplasm and Sarcode and O. Hertwig (1892) proposed a theory which later on called 'protoplasm theory' Huxley (1868) proposed protoplasm as a "physical basis of life".

(i) A beam of electron passes through the specimen to form an image. It provides two dimensional image.
(ii) The magnification is 1-3 lakhs times and resolving power is 2 - 10 Å.

Polypetalae: Plants with free petals and dichlamydeous flowers come under polypetalae. It is further divided into three series - (iii) Calyciflorae: It includes plant having flowers with cup shaped thalamus and with inferior or sometimes with half inferior ovary. It includes 5 orders and 27 families.

1. Genetic stability - Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cells.
2. Growth - As multicellular organisms grow, the number of cells making up their tissue increases. The new cells must be identical to the existing ones.
3. Repair of tissues - Damaged cells must be replaced by identical new cells by mitosis.

(i) Presence of well organised plant body which is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
(ii) Presence of eustele.

Because carbohydrates are partially oxidised to organic acid, particularly malic acid without corresponding release of CO₂ but O₂ is consumed. Hence the RQ value will be zero.
\(\underset { Glucose }{ 2{ C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 12 }{ O }_{ 6 }+3{ O }_{ 2 }\rightarrow } \underset { malic\quad acid }{ 3{ C }_{ 4 }{ H }_{ 6 }{ O }_{ 5 }+3{ H }_{ 2 }O+Energy } \)
RQ of glucose in succulents = \(\frac { Zero \ molecule \ of \ { CO }_{ 2 } }{ 3 \ molecules \ of \ { CO }_{ 2 } } \) = 0 (Zero)

The plants undergoes Photorespiration.
(i) It is the excess respiration taking place in photosynthetic cells due to absence of CO₂ and increase of O₂.
(ii) This condition changes the carboxylase role of RUBISCO into oxygenase.

(i) Nitrogen fixation process requires Nitrogenase enzyme complex, Minerals (Mo, Fe and S), anaerobic condition, ATP, electron and glucose 6 phosphate as H⁺ donor.
(ii) Nitrogenase enzyme is active only in anaerobic condition.
(iii) To create this anaerobic condition a pigment known as leghaemoglobin is synthesized in the nodules which acts as oxygen scavenger and removes the oxygen.

1. The discovery of enzyme phosphorylase in guard cells by Hanes (1940) greatly supports the starch-sugar interconversion theory.
2. The enzyme phosphorylase hydrolyses starch into sugar and high pH followed by endosmosis and the opening of stomata during light. The vice versa takes place during the night.

High concentration of salt in the soil leads to high osmotic potential, which may a result in wilting of plants due to following reasons.
(a) This may be due to osmotic withdrawal of water from a cell or system when it is placed in a hypertonic solution called Exosmosis.
(b) Exosmosis in a plant cell leads to plasmolysis. As a result of water loss in the cell protoplasm shrinks and the cell membrane is pulled away from the cell wall and finally the cell becomes flaccid.

(i) Invertebrates do not have notochord and presence of notochord is the unique feature of chordates.
(ii) Cephalisation indicates the distinct head in animals
Eg: Arthropods to chordates.
(iii) dorsal nerve cord arises in chordates behind the alimentary canal.
Eg: Hemichordates and chordates but ventral nerve cord arises in non chordates infront of the alimentary canal.
Eg: Annelidans to Echinoderms.
(iv) Radial symmetry is commonly found in coelenterates or cnidarians and in most of animals of other phyla.

Probiotics	Pathogenic bacteria
Probiotic bacteria are beneficial.	Pathogenic bacteria are harmful.
Probiotic bacteria may be decomposers, photosynthetic and few may be pathogenic.	All are pathogenic and causing diseases.

During crop rotations and mixed cropping. Farmers plant leguminous crops to increase the soil fertility.

S.No	Beneficial aspects	Bacteria	Role
1.	Ammonification	1. Bacillus ramosus 2.Bacillus mycoides	Convert complex proteins in the dead bodies of plants and animals into ammonia which is later converted into ammonium salt
2.	Nitrification	1. Nitrobacter 2. Nitrosomonas	Convert ammonium salts into nitrites and nitrates
3.	Nitrogen fixation	1. Azotobacter 2. Clostridium 3. Rhizobium	(i) Converting atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen
			(ii) The nitrogenous compounds are also oxidized to nitrogen
			(iii) All these activities of bacteria increase soil fertility

S.No	Criteria	Monera
1.	Cell type	Prokaryotic
2.	Level of organization	Mostly unicellular, rarely Multicellular
3.	Cell wall	Present (made up of peptidoglycan and mucopeptides)
4.	Nutrition	Autotrophic (Phototrophic, Chemoautotrophic) Heterotrophic (Parasitic and Saprophytic)
5.	Motility	Motile or non-motile
6.	Organisms	Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Cyanobacteria, Actinomycetes and Mycoplasma

Yes. The antheridia produce biflagellate antherozoids which swim in thin film of water and reach the archegonium and fuse with the egg to form diploid Zygote. Hence they need water for completing their life cycle.

S.No	Monopodial Branching	Sympodial branching
1	Indeterminate: The terminal bud grows uninterrupted and produce several lateral branches. This type of growth is also known as monopodial branching. Example: Polyalthia, Swietenia.	Determinate: The terminal bud cease to grow after a period of growth and further growth is taken care by successive or several lateral meristem or buds. This type of growth is also known as sympodial branching. Example: Cycas.