(a) Vascular tissues - Pteridophytes
(b) Seeds inside fruits- Angiosperms .
(c) Heterospory - Pteridophytes

Gymnosperms and angiosperms are classified separately because. the seeds of the angiosperms are enclosed by ovary (fruit wall) whereas the gymnospermic seeds are naked (not covered by ovary).

Siphonogamy refers to the development of pollen tubes for the transfer of male nuclei to egg cell.

Chlorella and Cladophora crispata

Shiwalik fossil park-Himachal Pradesh, Mandla Fossil park-Madhya Pradesh, Rajmahal Hills- Jharkhand, Ariyalur - Tamilnadu are some of the fossil rich sites of India.

(i) The Pigments include Chlorophyll a, c, caretenoids and Xanthophylls.
(ii) A goldenbrown pigment called fucoxanthini s present and it gives shades of colour from olive green to brown to the algal members of this group.

(i) Cycadopsida
(ii) Coniferopsida
(iii) Gnetopsida

They are proteinaceous bodies found in chloroplasts of algae and store starch.

Xylem plates alternate with phloem plates. Eg: Lycopodium clavatum.

Hepaticopsida, Anthocerotopsida and Bryopsida.

(i) A large amount of dead thallus of Sphagnum gets accumulated and compressed, hardened to form peat. In northern Europe peat is used as fuel in commercial scale (Netherlands).
(ii) Apart from this Nitrates, brown dye and tanning materials are derived from peat. Sphagnum and peat are also used in horticulture as packing material because of their water holding capacity,
(iii) Marchantiapolymorpha is used to cure pulmonary tuberculosis. Sphagnum, Bryum and Polytrichum are used as food.
(iv) Bryophytes play a major role in soil formation through succession and help in Soil conservation.

(i) The gametophyte is conspicuous, long lived phase of the life cycle.
(ii) Thalloid forms are present in liverworts and Hornworts.
(iii) In Mosses leaf like, stem like structures are present.
(iv) In Liverworts thallus grows prostrate on the ground and is attached to the substratum by means of rhizoids.
(v) Two types of rhizoids are present namely smooth walled and pegged. Multicellular scales are also present.
(vi) In Moss the plant body is erect with central axis bearing leaf like expansions. Multicellular rhizoids are present.

1. Seeds of monocotyledonous plants contain only one cotyledon.
2. Leaves show parallel venation.
3. Flowers are trimerous.
4. These plants have fibrous root system.

Yes. The antheridia produce biflagellate antherozoids which swim in thin film of water and reach the archegonium and fuse with the egg to form diploid Zygote. Hence they need water for completing their life cycle.

Yes, the shape of chloroplast is unique for algae.

Difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

1. Chlorophyceae commonly called as green algae.
2. Mostly aquatic (fresh water or marine), few terrestrial.
3. Shape of chloroplast differs. It may be cup shaped (Chlamydomonas) or girdle-shaped or reticulate, or stellate etc.
4. Chlorophyll 'a' and 'b' are photosynthetic pigments.
5. Pyrenoids store starch & also proteins.
6. Outer cell wall is made of pectin and inner is cellulose.
7. Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation.
8. Asexual reproduction by zoospores, aplanospores and akinetes.
9. Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
e.g., Chlamydomonas, Volvox and Spirogyra

1. On the Forest floor, fern stems live safely tucked below the ground.
2. They survive moderate fires even if all fronds are burnt away.
3. Once rains come and light is available, and when nutrients get released after the fire, new fronds are produced easily.
4. Thus ferns are often the first plants to grow after a fire.

Salient features of Bryophytes :
1. The plant body of bryophyte is gametophyte and is not differentiated into root, stem and leaf like structure.
2. Most of them are primitive land dwellers. Some of them are aquatic (Riella, Ricciocarpus).
3. The gametophyte is conspicuous, long lived phase of the life cycle. Thalloid forms are present in liverworts and Hornworts. In Mosses leaf like, stem like structures are present. In Liverworts thallus grows prostrate on the, ground and is attached to the substratum by means of rhizoids.
4. Vascular tissue like xylem and phloem are completely absent, hence called Non vascular cryptogams.
5. Vegetative reproduction takes place by the formation of adventitious buds (Riccia fluitans. Tubers develop in Anthoceros. Gemmae are formed in Marchantia.
6. Sexual reproduction is Oogamous. Antheridia and Archegonia are produced in a protective covering and are multicellular.
7. The antheridia produces biflagellate antherozoids which swims in thin film or' water and reach the archegonium and fuse with the egg to form diploid zygote.
8. Water is essential for fertilization.
9. The zygote is the first cell of the sporophyte generation. It undergoes mitotic division to form multicellular undifferentiated embryo. The embryogeny is exoscopic. The embryo divides and give rise to sporophyte.
10. The sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte.
11. It is differentiated into three recognizable parts namely foot, seta and capsule. The foot is the basal portion and is embedded in the gametophyte through which water and nutrients are supplied for the sporophyte. The diploid spore mother cells found in the capsule region undergoes meiotic division and give rise to haploid spores. In some sporophytes Elaters are present and help in dispersal of spores Eg: Marchantia.
12. Bryophytes are homosporous.
13. The zygote, embryo and the sporogonium constitute sporophytic phase. The green long living haploid phase is called gametophytic phase The haploid gametophytic phase alternates with diploid and shows heterologous alternation of generation.