Protoderm, Procambium and ground meristerm

1) The effect of two substances in such a way that they  have opposite effects on the same process is called Antagonistic effect.
2) One accelerates and other inhibits. Example: ABA and gibberellins during seed or bud dormancy, ABA induces dormancy and gibberellins break it.

The animals which excrete urea are ureotelics. Eg: Earthworm, Cartilaginous fishes, Frogs and Mammals.

A satellite or SAT Chromosome are short chromosomal segment or rounded body separated from main chromosome by a relatively elongated secondary constriction. It is a morphological entity in certain chromosomes.

1. Undifferentiated calyx and corolla in a flower is called perianth. Each member is
2. called tepal.
3. If the tepals are distinct they are called Apotepalous (Polyphyllous). Example: Allium sativum.
4. Fused tepals are called Syntepalous. (Gamophyllous).
5. Example: Allium cepa.

A. I Bands.

Excessive stretch of cardiac atrial cells cause an increase in blood flow to the auricles of the heart and release ANF (Atrial natriuretic peptide or factor) which stimulates the increase Na⁺ excretion. Chemoreceptors like carotid bodies formed in the heart.

1. Hydrostatic/Hydrostatic / Colloidal osmotic pressure maintains ultrafiltration of glomerulus.
2. The Efferent arteriole pressure opposes them.
3. Net filtration pressure = 55 mmHg - 30 mmHg + 15 mmHg = 10mmHg.

1. The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the heart.
2. The hepatic portal vein brings blood from intestine and other abdominal organs.

(i) Blood consists of 60% of plasma and 40% of blood cells.

(ii) Red blood cells are nucleated containing haemoglobin (red pigment) and these are oval shaped.
(iii) Leucocytes are nucleated and circular in shape.

S.no. Peristomium Prostomium (1) It lies at the middle of the first
true segment It lies on pseudo or false segment (2) It starts to push the ingested
food into pharynx It starts ingestion (3) It serves as mouth A small flap overhanging the
mouth serves as upper lip

(i) Ommatidia are the visual units of compound eyes of cockroach.
(ii) Each ommatidium is functional as an eye unit.
(iii) Photoreceptors are dorsally found.
(iv) Each compound eye consists of 2000 simple eyes called ommatidia.
(v) All the visual images captured by ommatidia are made into a single coherent picture by supra oesophageal ganglion (brain).

Xylem plates alternate with phloem plates. Eg: Lycopodium clavatum.

Phytochrome is a bluish biliprotein pigment responsible for perception of light in photo physiological process. It was named by Butler et a1 and exists in two inter convertible forms - P_r (red . r light absorbing pigment)' and (P_fr - far red light absorbing pigment).

(i) In many dicot plants, the lumen of the xylem vessels is blocked by many balloonlike ingrowths from the neighbouring parenchymatous cells. These balloon-like structures are called tyloses.
(ii) Usually, these structures are formed in secondary xylem vessels that have lost their function i.e., in heart wood. In fully developed tyloses, starchy crystals, resins, gums, oils, tannins or coloured substances are found.

It is a digestive disorder in which the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness of stomach. It may be due to inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.

Bacterial aspects	Bacteria	Role
Ammonification	(i) Bacillus ramosus  (ii) Bacillus mycoides	Convert complex proteins in the dead bodies of plants and animals into ammonia which is later converted into ammonium salt

Physiological effect:
1) Cytokinin promotes cell division in the presence of auxin (IAA).
2) Induces cell enlargement associated with IAA and gibberellins
3) Cytokinin can break the dormancy of certain light-sensitive seeds like tobacco and induces seed germination.
4) Cytokinin promotes the growth of lateral bud in the presence of apical bud.
5) Application of cytokinin delays the process of aging by nutrient mobilization.
6) It is known as Richmond Lang effect.
7) Cytokinin
(i) increases rate protein synthesis
(ii) induces the formation of inter-fascicular cambium
(iii) overcomes apical dominance
(iv) induces formation of new leaves, chloroplast and lateral shoots.
8) Plants accumulate solutes very actively with the help of cytokinins.

(i) Nitrogen fixation process requires Nitrogenase enzyme complex, Minerals (Mo, Fe and S), anaerobic condition, ATP, electron and glucose 6 phosphate as H⁺ donor.
(ii) Nitrogenase enzyme is active only in anaerobic condition.
(iii) To create this anaerobic condition a pigment known as leghaemoglobin is synthesized in the nodules which acts as oxygen scavenger and removes the oxygen.

Brain stem
A- Thalamus
B- Pineal gland
C- Corpora quadrigemina
D- Pons
E- Cerebral peduncle
F- Medulla oblongata

MOET-Multiple Ovulation embryo transfer technology:
1. Advantage of this technology is to produce high milk yielding females and high-quality meat yielding bulls in a short time.
2. It is applicable in animal husbandry.
3. It is a method of propagation of animals with desirable traits.
4. This method can be applied when the success rate of cross over even in low cost.

1 Lac cut from the host plant is called 'Stick lac'.
2. The lac present on the twig is scraped and collected.
3. After grinding, the unnecessary materials like dusts and fine particles are removed.
4. The resultant lac is called 'seed lac'.
5. The seed lac is sun dried and then melted to produce 'shellac'.
Uses:
1. It is used as sealing wax.
2. It is used as filling material for gold ornaments.
3. It is used in preparation of shoe and leather polishes.

1. Chitin is a homo polysaccharide with amino acids added to form mucopolysaccharide.
2. The basic unit is a nitrogen-containing glucose derivative known as N-acetyl glucosamine.
3. It forms the exoskeleton of insects and other arthropods. It is also present in the cell walls of fungi.

S.No.	Aggregate fruit	Multiple fruit
1	Aggregate fruits develop from a single fl ower having an apocarpous pistil. each of the free carpel develops into a simple fruitlet. A collection of simple fruitlets makes an Aggregate fruit. An individual ovary develops into a drupe, achene, follicle or berry	A Multiple or composite fruit develops from the whole infl orescence along with its peduncle on which they are borne
2	Eg: Polyalthia	Eg: Pineapple

1. Cyclic photophosphorylation refers to the electrons ejected from the pigment system I (photosystem I) and again cycled back to the PS I.
2. When the photons activate P700 reaction centre photosystem II is activated.
3. Electrons are raised to the high energy level.
4. The primary electron acceptor is Ferredoxin Reducing Substance (FRS) which transfers electrons to Ferredoxin (Fd), Plastoquinone (PQ), cytochrome b6-f complex, Plastocyanin (PC) and finally back to chlorophyll P700 (PS I).

5. During this movement of electrons Adenosine Di Phosphate (ADP) is phosphorylated, by the addition of inorganic phosphate and generates Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP).
6. Cyclic electron transport produces only ATP and there is no NADPH + H⁺ formation.
7. At each step of electron transport, the electron loses potential energy and is used by the transport chain to pump H⁺ ions across the thylakoid membrane.
8. The proton gradient triggers ATP formation in ATP synthase enzyme situated on the thylakoid membrane.
9. Photosystem I need light of longer wavelength (>P700 nm).
10. It operates under low light intensity, less CO₂ and under anaerobic conditions which makes it considered as earlier in evolution.

Transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another is called transformation. In 1928, the bacteriologist Frederick Griffith demonstrated transformation in mice using Diplococcus pneumoniae. Two strains of this bacterium are present. One strain produces smooth colonies and are virulent in nature (S type), in addition another strain produced rough colonies and are avirulent (R type). When S-type of cells were injected into the mouse, the mouse died. When R-type of cells were injected, the mouse survived. He injected heat killed S-type cells into the mouse the mouse did not die. When the mixture of heat killed S-type cells and R-type cells were injected into the mouse. The mouse died. The avirulent rough strain of Diplococcus had been transformed into S-type cells. The hereditary material of heat killed S-type cells had transformed R-type cell into virulent smooth strains. Thus the phenomenon of changing the character of one strain by transferring the DNA of another strain into the former is called transformation.

Heart is divided into four chambers, upper two small auricles or atrium and lower two large ventricles. The two auricles are separated by inter auricular septum and the two ventricles are separated by inter-ventricular septum The separation of chambers avoids mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. The auricle communicates with the ventricle through an opening called auricle ventricular aperture which is guarded by the auricle ventricular valves. The opening between the right atrium and the right ventricle is guarded by the tricuspid valve (three flaps or cusps), whereas a bicuspid (two flaps or cusps) or mitra1 valve guards the opening between the left atrium and left ventricle. The valves of the heart allows the blood to flow only in one direction, i.e., from the atria to the ventricles and from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery or the aorta. These valves prevent backward flow of blood. The opening of right and left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and aorta are guarded by aortic and pulmonary valves and are called semilunar valves. The opening and closing of the semilunar valves are achieved by the chordae tendinae. The chordae tendinae are attached to the lower end of the heart by papillary muscles.

Structure of thyroid gland:
Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland in the body.


1. It is a butterfly shaped, bilobed gland located below the larynx on either side of upper trachea.
2. The two lateral lobes are connected by a median tissue mass called isthmus.
3. Each lobe is made up of many lobules. The lobules consist of follicles called acini.
4. Each acinus is lined with glandular, cuboidal or squamous epithelial cells. The lumen of acinus is filled with colloid, a thick glycoprotein mixture consisting of thyroglobulin molecules.
5. It secretes two hormones namely tri-iodothyronine [T₃] and thyroxine or tetra- iodothyronine [T₄].
6. The parafollicular cells or 'C' cells of thyroid gland secrete a hormone called thyrocalcitonin.
7. Iodine is essential for the normal synthesis of thyroid hormone.
8. Thyroid hormones shows a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary.

(a) Some nephrons, have very long loop of Henle that run deep into the medulla are called juxtamedullary nephrons which aid in filtration from glomerulus.
(b) Podocytes are the filtration slits.
(c) Sphincters of urinary bladder are internal paired (involuntary) and external paired (Voluntary) control micturition.

Economic importance	Binomial	Useful part	Uses
Pulses	Cajanus cajan (Pigeon Pea) Phaseolus vulgaris (French bean)	Seeds	Sources of protein and starch of our food
Food plants	Sesbania grandiflora (agathi, vegetable humming bird) Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (cluster bean)	Leaves Tender fruits	Greens Vegetable
Oil Plants	Arachis hypogaea (Ground nut) Pongamia pinnata (Pungam)	Seeds Seeds	Oil extracted from the seeds is edible and used for cooking. Pongam oil has medicinal value and is used in the preparation of soap
Timber Plants	Dalbergia latifolia (rose wood) Pterocarpus santalinus (red sandalwood)	Timber	Timber is used for making furniture, cabinet articles and as building materials.
Medicinal Plants	Crotalaria albida Mucuna pruriens	Roots Seeds	Used as purgative Neurological remedy
Fibre Plants	Crotalaria juncea (sunhemp), Sesbania aegyptiaca (sesban)	Stem fibres (Bast)	Used for making ropes
Dye Plants	Indigofera tinctoria (Avuri)	Leaves	Indigo dye obtained from leaves is used to colour printing and in paints. Blue dye is obtained.
Green Manuring	Indigofera tinctoria Tephrosea purpurea Gliricidia sepium	Entire plant	Used as green manure because of the presence of nitrogen fixing bacteria in the lateral roots.
Ornamental Plants	Butea frondosa (Flame of the forest), Clitoria ternatea,  Lathyrus odoratus (Sweet pea) and Lupinus hirsutus (Lupin)	Entire plant	Grown as ornamental plants