Proinces under the Peshwas were of various sizes. Larger provinces were under the provincial governors called Sar-subahdars.
The divisions in the provinces were termed Subahs arid Pranths.
The Mamlatdar and Kamavistar were Peshwa's representatives in the districts. They were responsible for every branch of district administration.
Deshmukhs and Deshpandes were district officers who were in charge of accounts and were to observe the activities of Mamlatdars and Kamavistars.

1. Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by people of the first,three orders in the social hierarchy became available to everyone.
2. Bhakti movement provided women and members of the lower strata of the society an inclusive path to spiritual salvation.
3. Literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse.
4. The poet-saints of this movement championed a wide range of philosophical positions, ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita.

1. The Diwan's duty included the collection of revenue and the control of civil justice.
2. The Nizam's function was to exercise military power and to dispense criminal justice
3. Thus the Company acquired the real power, while the responsibility of administration was with the Nawab.
4. This arrangement is called Dual System or Double government or Dyarchy.

• The Ahmadiya movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed (1835-1908) in 1889 established a different trend.
• While emphasizing the return to the original principles enunciated in the Quran, Ghulam Ahmed became controversial when he claimed to be a Messiah, which was considered heretical by mainstream Islam.
• But he won many converts. His primary work was to defend Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries.
• In social morals the Ahmadiya movement was conservative, adhering to polygamy,veiling of women, and the classical rules of divorce.

1. Humayun became the Emperor once again.
2. He died very soon after regaining Delhi when he slipped down the stairs of the library in the fort at Delhi.
3. In the colorful words of Lane Poole, "Humayun stumbled out of his life, as he has stumbled through it."

1. He made very large donations to many ofthe greatest Siva and Vishnu temples of the day- Srisailam, Tirupati, Kalahasti, Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai, Chidambaram, etc.

1. The prominent rock-cut cave temples created by the early Pandyas are found in Pillayarpatti, Tirumeyyam, Kuntrakkudi, Tiruchendur, Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari and Sittannavasal.
2. Paintings are found in the temples in Sittannavasal, Arittaapatti, Tirumalaipuram and Tirunedunkarai.

1. Jainism was patronised by later rulers such as Amoghavarsha I, Indra IV, Krishna II and Indra III.
2. Buddhism had declined and its only important centre was at Kanheri. The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning.
3. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made great progress during their reign. Amoghavarsha I was the author of Prasnottaramalika, a Sanskrit work, and Kavirajarnarga, a Kannada work.
4. Jinasena wrote the Adipurana of the Jains.
5. Krishna II's spiritual guide, Gunabhadra, wrote the Mahapurana of the Jains.
6. The three gems of ancient Kannada literature - Kavichakravarthi Ponna, Adikavi Panpa and Kavichakravarti Ranna - were patronised by Rashtrkuta king Krishna III, as well as by Tailapa and Satyashraya of Western Chalukyas.

Trade routes opened up with the West.
1. There were four different trade routes in use, which facilitated the movement of Greek merchants and craftsmen to India, establishing direct contact between India and Greece.
2. As trade contact increased, many Greek settlements were established in the northwest of India.
3. Alexandria near Kabul, Boukephala near Peshawar in Pakistan and Alexandria in Sindh were some of the prominent Greek settlements.

Craft production was an important part of the Harappan economy.
1. Bead and ornament making, shell bangle making and metal working were the major crafts.
2. They made beads and ornaments out of carnelian, jasper, crystal, and steatite, metals like copper, bronze and gold and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
3. The beads were made in innumerable designs and decorations.

1. In 1815, the Governor of Madras received a communication from the Governor of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) asking for coolies to work on the coffee plantations.
2. The Madras Governor forwarded this letter to the collector of Thanjavur, who after enquiry reported back saying that the people were very much attached to the soil and hence unless some incentive was provided it was not easy to make them move out of their native soil.
3. But the outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843) forced the people, without any prompting from the government, to leave for Ceylon to work as coolies in coffee and tea plantations under indentured labour system.
4. During 1843-1868, nearly 1.5 million people (1,444,407) had gone from Madras to Ceylon as indentured labourers.

The overall contribution of Brahmo Samaj can be summed up as follows
• It denounced polytheism, idol worship, and the faith in divine avatars (incarnations)
• It condemned the caste system, dogmas and superstitions .
• It wanted the abolition of child marriage, purdah system and the practice of sati
• It supported widow remarriage

1. From the beginning, both the Bahmani and Vijayangar kingdoms were in constant conflict. The contest for territory, tribute, and the control of horse trade were the major subjects of conflict.
2. Each of them wanted to annex and dominate the fertile area between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra (the Raichur doab). Though neither of them succeeded fully, much bloodshed took place for some transitory success.
3. Some historians argue that religious rivalry between the Hindu Vijayanagar and the Muslim Sultanate was the basic cause of this continuous fight.
4. Actually the Vijayanagar kings fought also with many Hindu, non-Muslim rulers, like those of Warangal, Kondavidu, Orissa, etc., in which Muslim rulers took part as allies sometimes and as enemies on other times.
5. The control of horse trade that passed through Goa and other ports was another reason for the fighting. Horses were necessary for the armies of both sides. In spite of continuous fighting, the Krishna river was more or less the dividing line between the two powers.
6. In coastal Andhra, the power struggle was between the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa and Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar couldnot make much headway until the time of Devaraya II (1422-46), who defeated the Orissan army in some battles.
7. But these conquests were only to extract tribute, and no territory was added. Devaraya II was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He strengthened his cavalry by recruiting trained Muslim cavalry for his army and giving archery training to his soldiers.
8. Abdur Razaak, the Persian ambassador who visited the Zamorin of Kochi and the Vijayanagar court during this time states that Devaraya II controlled a vast area. He received tribute from the king of Sri Lanka too.

Shivaji began his military career at the age of nineteen. In 1646, he captured the fortress of Torna from the Sultan of Bijapur.
The fort of Raigad, located five miles east of Torna, was captured and wholly rebuilt. After the death of Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji took over all the jagirs of his father.
Subsequently, the forts of Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar and Kondana came-under his direct control. The Marathas had already captured Kalyan, an important town in that region.
Shivaji's father had been humiliated and imprisoned by the Sultan of Bijapur. He negotiated with Prince Murad, the Mughal Viceroy of the Deccan and expressed his wish to join Mughal service.
The Sultan of Bijapur released Shahji in 1649 on some conditions. So, Shivaji refrained from. his military activities from 1649 to 1655 During this period, he consolidated his power and toned up his administration.
In 1656, Shivaji re-started his military activities. He captured Jav1i in the Satara district and the immense booty that he won made him popular among the Marathas. Many young men joined his army. A new fort, Pratapgarh, was built two miles west of Javli.

1. The bhakti reformers preached the principles of monotheism (oneness of God)
2. They believed in freedom from the cycle of life and death. They advocated that the salvation could be attained only by deep devotion and faith in God.
3. They emphasized the self-surrender for obtaining the bliss and grace of God.
4. Gurus could act as guides and preceptors.
5. They advocated the principle of Universal brotherhood.
6. They criticized idol worship.
7. They stressed the singing of hymns with deep devotion.
8. Arguing that all living beings, including humans, were god's children they strongly denounced caste system which divided people according to their birth.
9. They condemned ritualism, pilgrimages and fasts.
10 They did not consider any language as sacred and composed poems in the language of the common people.

• Vellore Revolt 1806 was the culmination of the attempts of the descendants of the dethroned kings and chieftains in south India to throw of the yoke of the British rule.
• After the suppression of revolt of Marudu brothers, they made Vellore the centre of their activity.
• The organizers of an Anti-British Confederacy continued their secret moves, as a result of which no fewer than 3,000 loyalists of Mysore sultans had settled either in the town of Vellore or in its vicinity.
• The garrison of VeIlore itself consisted of many aggrieved persons, who had been reduced to dire straits as a sequel to loss of positions or whose properties had been confiscated or whose relatives were slain by the English.
Causes:
• In the meantime, the English enforced certain innovations in the administration of the sepoy establishments. They prohibited all markings on the forehead which were intended to denote caste and religious, and directed the sepoys to cut their moustaches to a set pattern. Added to these, Adjutant General Agnew designed and introduced under his direct supervision a new model turban for the sepoys.
• The most obnoxious innovation in the new turban, from the Indian point of view, was the leather cockade. The cockade. was made of animal skin. Pig skin was anathema to Muslims, while upper caste Hindus shunned anything to do with the cow's hide. To make matters worse the front part of the uniform had been converted into a cross.
• The order regarding whiskers, caste marks and earrings, which infringed the religious customs of both Hinduand Muslim soldiers, was justified on the grounds that, although they had not been prohibited previously by any formal order, it had never been the practice in any well-regulated corps for the men to appear with them on parade.

1. Akbar began his life as an orthodox Muslim but adopted an accommodative approach under the influence of Sufism.
2. Akbar was interested to learn about the doctrines of all religions, and propagated a philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all).
3. Badauni, a contemporary author, who did not like Akbar's inter-religious interests, accused him of forsaking Islam.
4. Akbar had established an Ibadat Khana, a hall of worship in which initially Muslim I clerics gathered to discuss spiritual issues.
5. Later he invited Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains and even atheists to discussions.
6. In 1582, he discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness among different religions.
7. However, he did not give up his attempt to know the Truth. Akbar discussed personally with the leading lights of different religions like Purushotam and Devi (Hinduism), Meherji Rana (Zorastrianism), the Portugese Aquaviva and Monserrate (Christianity) and Hira Vijaya Suri (Jainism) to ascertain the Truth. Because of the discussions he felt that behind the multiplicity of names there was but one God.
8. The exact word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate the philosophy of Akbar is Tauhid-i-Ilahi namely Din Ilahi. Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally meant divine monotheism.
9. It can be considered a sufistic order but not a new religion. He had become a Pir (Sufi Guru) who enrolled Murids (Sufi disciples) who would follow a set pattern of rules ascribed by the Guru.
10. Thousands of disciples enrolled as his disciples. Akbar's intention was to establish a state based on the concept of secular principles, equal toleration, and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs.
11. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc, into Persian.
12. he Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda, the Bible and the Quran were translated into Persian. The Din Ilahi ceased to exist after Akbar.

• For the first time in the political history of India the Europeans conquered and seized territories from the Indian rulers.
• Indian rulers remained divided and Europeans took advantage of it.
• The Europeans adopted new methods in the warfare. Gun powder and superior artillery played a significant role.
• The Portuguese could contain the monopolistic trade of the Arabs. But it did not really help them. Instead, it benefited the British who removed pirates on the sea routes and made the sea voyage safe.
• The marriages between Europeans and Indians, encouraged by the Portuguese in the territories occupied by them, created a new Eurasian racial group. They were the ones who were later taken to other Portuguese colonies in Africa and Asia.
• The presence of Portuguese is very much evident in Chennai's San Thome. Mylapore was the Portuguese 'Black Town'. (Black Town of the British period was George Town)

1. Pandyas built different models of temples. They are sepulchral temple (e.gsundarapandisvaram), rock-cut cave temples and structural temples.
2. Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did not build any new temples but maintained the existing temples, enlarging them with the addition of gopuras, mandapas and circumambulations.
3. The monolithic mega-sized ornamented pillars are the unique feature of the medieval Pandya style. The early Pandya temples are modest and simple.
4. In these temples of the Pandya country, the sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa, Subramanya, Surya and Brahma are best specimens.
5. Pandyas specially patronised Meenakshi temple and kept expanding its premises by adding gopuras and mandapas.
6. The prominent rock-cut cave temples created by the early Pandyas are found in Pillayarpatti, Tirumeyyam, Kuntrakkudi, Tiruchendur, Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari and Sittannavasal.
7. Paintings are found in the temples in Sittannavasal, Arittaapatti, Tirumalaipuram and Tirunedunkarai.

1. Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly from the cultivators. The village headman who traditionally enjoyed the right to collect them was now deprived of it.
2. The tax pressure of Ala-ud-din was on the rich and not on the poor.
3. Ala-ud-din set up the postal system to keep in touch with all parts of his sprawling empire.

1. The Gupta kingdom emerged as a great power and achieved the political unification of a large part of the Indian subcontinent.
2. It featured a strong central government, bringing many kingdoms under its hegemony.
3. Feudalism as an institution began to take root during this period.
4. With an effective guild system and overseas trade, the Gupta economy boomed.
5. Great works in Sanskrit were produced during this period and a high level of cultural maturity in fine arts, sculpture and architecture was achieved.
6. The living standards of upper classes reached a peak.
7. Education, art and study of science progressed, but the feudal system of governance put people in some form of hardship.
8. Although some historians proclaim that Gupta period was a golden age.

Foreign Notices
The following Greek and Latin sources inform us about the long distance cultural and commercial connections.
1. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient Greek text of the first century CE.
2. Pliny the Elder's Natural History, first century CE
3. Ptolemy's Geography, second century CE
4. Vienna Papyrus G 40822, aGreek document datable to the second century CE.
5. A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table

About 500 years after Mahavira's death, in about 79 or 82 CE, a schism occurred in Jainism. Magadha was affected by severe famine and some of the Jaina monks under Bhadrabahu went south to maintain their strict discipline. They remained without garments and were known as Digambaras (space-clad or naked). Others stayed back under the leadership of Sthulabhadra and adopted a white garment and were known as Svetambaras (white-clad). The schism weakened Jainism in Magadha, but it foundardent followers in Gujarat, Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka.

The planned towns of Harappa
1. A civic authority perhaps controlled the planning of the towns.
2. The Harappans used baked and unbaked bricks, and stones for construction.
3. The towns had a grid pattern and drainages were systematically built.
4. The houses were built of mud bricks while the drainages were built with burnt bricks.
5. Houses had more than one floor.
The planned towns of Mohenjo-Daro
1. The site of Mohenjo-Daro had a planned town, built on a platform.
2. It has two distinct areas.
3. One is identified as a citadel and another as the lower town.
4. The houses had bathrooms paved with burnt bricks and proper drains.
5. Some houses had stairs indicating the existence of an upper floor.
6. The houses had multiple rooms. 
7. Many of the houses had a central courtyard with rooms all around.

• The Europeans were quite aware of the wealth and power of the Mughals, and English poets even wrote about the fabulous "wealth of India".
• Travellers from all parts of Europe visited India regularly during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
• The journals of their travels present a detailed contemporary account of the empire and society in India.

The Brahmo Samaj broke into two namely Devendranath Tagore's, 'Brahmo Samaj of India' and Keshub Chandra Sen's 'Sadharan Brahmo Samaj'.

• According to the treaty of Srirangapatnam, the Tipu was to give up half of his dominions, pay three crores of rupees as indemnity, and pledge two of his sons as hostages.
• The allies were given equal shares of the indemnity and of the ceded territories

1. The fertile areas of the Krishna and the Tungabhadra
2. The coastal areas of Andhra.

(a) Sikhism
1. Sikhism originated as a popular monotheistic movement, arid evolved into one of the recognised religions of the world.
2. Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of Sikhs, contained the sayings of Muslim saint Shaikh Farid and of Bhakti poets such as Namdev, Kabir, Sain and Ravidas.
(b) Sufism
1. India was a fertile soil for the prevalence of Sufism or Muslim mysticism that had its origin in Iran. It was accepted by the orthodox theologians as long as it fulfilled the obligations of the shariah.
2. Sufism played a key role in creating religious harmony.

1. Muslims brought their musical instruments like Rabab and Sarangi. Amir Khusrau proclaimed that Indian music had a pre- eminence over all the other music of the world.
2. The Sufi practice of Sama, recitation of love poetry to the accompaniment of music, was instrumental in promotion of music.
3. PirBhodan, a Sufi saint, was considered a great musician of the age.

1. Hieun Tsang recorded the fame of the Nalanda University. Students and scholars from the Buddhist countries like China, Japan, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Tibet
2. Some other countries of Central and Southeast Asia stayed and studied in the university.
3. Shilabhadra, a reputed Buddhist scholar, who probably hailed from Assam, was the head of the University during the visit of Hieun Tsang.
4. As an educational centre of international fame, Nalanda had 10,000 students on its rolls.
5. Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari, Jayasena, Devakara and Matanga were important teachers in the university receiving royal patronage.

In India,the term yavana was used to denote all person of Greek origin, including those of mixed race and even the Phoenicians.

The most famous of Alexander's encounters was with Porus, ruler of the region between Jhelum and Beas. The two armies met in the battle of Hydaspes in which Porus was imprisoned. Later, impressed by the Porus's dignity, Alexander restored his throne on the condition of accepting his suzerainty.

The Painted Grey ware sites reveal the development of agriculture and pastoralism, and the settlements of this period grew in dimension.