The gallantry displayed by the daring Rajput youth against the Nawab is immortalized in many popular ballads in Tamil

Krishna Devaraya, during his reign (1509- 1529), developed the Nayankara system.
Accordingly, the Tamil country was divided into three large Nayankaras: Senji, Thanjavur and Madurai.

The third battle of Panipat, 1761 is one of the decisive battles in the history of India.
The defeat in the battle dealt a severe blow to the Marathas and the Mughal Empire and thereby paved the way for the rise of the British power in India

Chaitanya's concern, unlike that of Kabir, was not with bringing people to an understanding of a God, beyond all creeds and formulations; it was to exalt the superiority of Krishna over all other deities.

(a) SurDas
1. The intensity of passion displayed by the gopis is an expression of the natural attraction of the human spirit towards the divine soul.
2. His popular works are Sur Sagar, Sur Saravali and Sahitya Lehari.
3. His monumental work Sur Sagar or Sur's Ocean is a story of Lord Krishna from the birth to the departure for Mathura.
(b) TukaRam
1. According to him, it was not possible to enjoin spiritualjoy with worldly activities.
2. He stressed the all-pervasiveness of God.
3. He rejected Vedic sacrifices, ceremonies, pilgrimages, idol worship, etc. He also preached the virtue of piety, forgiveness and peace of mind.
4. He spread the message of equality and brotherhood. He tried to foster Hindu- Muslim Unity.

1. The Educational Dispatch of Charles Wood (1854) outlined a comprehensive scheme of education-primary, secondary, collegiate.
2. Departments of Public Instruction and a university for each of the three Presidencies were organized for the purpose.
3. University of Madras was established under this plan (1857), along with universities in Bombay and Calcutta.

1. 'Settlement' refers to the assessment and fixing of the quantum of land revenue to be paid by each zamindar to the government.
2. For Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, this was fixed permanently.
3. Thus the zamindars who were originally tax collectors acquired hereditary rights over the land assigned by the government.

Kols as tribals inhabited in Chotanagpur and Singbhum region of Bihar and Orissa. The immediate cause of their uprising was the action of the Raja of Chotanagpur in leasing several villages to the non-tribals. The Kols of Sonepur and Tamar took the initiative in organizing a revolt against the thikadars (tax collectors).

• The Sri Vaikunda Swamigal's cult, which survives to this day, was organized in the 1830s.
• Born ina poor family (1809) at Sastankoil Vilai (now known as Swamithoppu), a village then in south Travancore (the present day Kanyakumari district), Muthukutti, spent his childhood in the village pial school, learning religious and moral texts:
• He also learnt the Bible and became well-versed in Christian theology.
• At the age of twenty two, Muthukutti, cured of a skin disease, after a holy bath in the sea during his visit to the Murugan temple at Tiruchendur (Thoothukudi district), claimed that Lord Vishnu had given him a rebirth as his son.
• On his return from Tiruchendur, assuming the new name of Sri Vaikundar, he practised austerities for two years. Soon his fame spread far and wide.

• The most famous among his disciples was a young graduate of the Calcutta University named Narendranath Dutta, afterward famously called Swami Vivekananda( 1863-1902).
• Emphasising practical work over philosophizing he established the modem institution of the Ramakrishna Mission.
• He carried Ramakrishna's message allover India and the world.
• His learning, eloquence, spiritual fervour and personality gathered round him a band of followers across the country, many of whom also joined the national movement.

1. Kharkhanas were workshops where expensive craft products were produced.
2. The royal kharkhanas manufactured articles for the use of the royal family and nobility.

Portuguese
1. In 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur and made it the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East.
2. Subsequently Daman, Salsette and Bombay on the west coast and at Santhome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast had become Portuguese settlements.
Dutch
1.The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatam (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattinam (all in 1658) and Cochin (1663).
Danes
1. Denmark also established trade settlements in India and their settlements were at Tranquebar in Tamilnadu (1620) and Serampore, their headquarters in Bengal.
French
1. Surat (1668); Masulipatnam (1669), Pondicherry, a small village then (1673), Chandernagore in Bengal (1690). Later they acquired Mahe in the Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal (both in 1725) and Karaikal (1739).
English
1. The Company first created a trading post in Surat (where a factory was built in 1612), and then secured Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690).
2. Though the Company had many factories, Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and the Bombay Castle were the three major trade settlements of the English.

1. The ruler of Mewar, Rana Udai Singh, put up a great fight before losing Chittor, which was conquered by Akbar after a siege of six months.
2. The capture of Chittor was followed by the surrender of Rajput states like Ranthambhor, Kalinjar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer.

• The Portuguese who established a control over Pulicat since 1502 were overthrown by the Dutch.
• In Pulicat, located 60 kilometers north of Chennai, the Dutch built the Castle Geldria. The remains of this 400 year old fort can be seen even now. This fort was once the seat of Dutch power.
• The Dutch established control of Masulipatnam in 1605 and they established their settlement at Pulicat in 1610. The other Dutch colonial forts and possessions include Nagapattinam, Punnakayal, Porto Novo, Cuddalore (Tiruppathiripuliyur) and Devanampatinam.
• Pulicat served as the Coromandel headquarters of the Dutch East India Company. Diamonds were exported from Pulicat to the western countries. Nutmeg, cloves, and mace too were sent from here to Europe.
• A gun powder factory was also set up by the Dutch to augment their military power.
• One less known fact about the Dutch is they were involved in slave trade. People from Bengal and from settlements such as Tengapattinam and Karaikal were brought to Pulicat.
• The Dutch employed brokers at Madras for catching and shipping slaves. Famines, droughts and war that resulted in food shortage led to the flourishing of the slave trade.

• The arrival of the Europeans, beginning with the Portuguese, was the first major external shock to this well established and regulated system of trade.
• The primary interest of the Europeans was in securing spices for Europe directly. In the olden days, the spices were carried to the Persian Gulf ports and then overland to the Mediterranean.
• They soon learned that a simple bilateral exchange was not workable in the Asian markets. This was mainly because there was no demand in the local economies for the products of Europe, other than gold or silver.
• On the other hand, because of the universal demand in south-east Asian markets for Indian textiles, clothes from India served as a substitute medium of exchange.
• The demand for the painted fabrics of the Coromandel coast in the Indonesian islands, in particular, made the Dutch and the English set up their establishments on the east coast to procure the cloth that could be profitably exchanged for spices.

• Under Vijayanagar rule, three Nayak kingdoms had been set up in the Tamil region; in Madurai, Thanjavur and Senji. The objective was to provide financial and manpower resources to the empire.
• After the defeat of Vijayanagar in 1565 in the Battle ofTalikota by the combined forces of the rulers of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkonda, the central authority of the once dominant kingdom became very weak.
• The Nayak kingdoms became virtually autonomous, though they made a ritualistic acknowledgment of the authority of the Vijayanagar emperor .
• In addition to the larger Nayak kingdoms, several local chiefs also controlled some parts of the region. The most notable of them was probably the Setupati of Ramanathapuram, who was also keen to assert his independence.

1. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, horse trade was brisk.
2. Marco Polo and Wassaff state that the kings invested in horses as there was a need of horses for ceremonial purposes and for fighting wars.
3. Those who were trading in horses were called kudirai-chetti.

The taxes collected included irai, kanikadan, iraikattina-kanikadan and kadami. An important category of tax was kudimai.

Rajendra Chola, conquered ofkadaram. So, he is called as "KadaramKondan".

1. The form was in hymns of the Nayanmars and the Azhwars.
2. The saints of Saivism and Vaishnavism simplified the use of Tamil language with the application of music. They brought the local and regional ethos into the main stream.
3. Azhwars (totally 12) and Nayanmars (totally 63), came from different strata of Tamil society, such as artisans and cultivators.
4. There were women saints as well like Andal, an Azhwar saint.
5. The poet Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Tilakawathi), and the Pandya queen Mangayarkkarasiyar were prominent female Nayanmar saints.

1. They are square-shaped except Kailasanatha cave (cave-16), which is a massive monolithic structure, carved out of a single solid rock.
2. This temple is said to represent Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva. The temple is two storeyed and the Kailasa temple is on the first one.
3. The lower storey has carved life-size elephants, which looks like they are holding up the temple on their backs.
4. The temple exterior has richly carved windows, images of deities from the Hindu scriptures and Mithunas (amorous male and female figures).

1. Jainism was patronised by later rulers such as Amoghavarsha I, Indra IV, Krishna II and Indra III.
2. Buddhism had declined and its only important centre was at Kanheri. The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning.
3. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made great progress during their reign. Amoghavarsha I was the author of Prasnottaramalika, a Sanskrit work, and Kavirajarnarga, a Kannada work.
4. Jinasena wrote the Adipurana of the Jains.
5. Krishna II's spiritual guide, Gunabhadra, wrote the Mahapurana of the Jains.
6. The three gems of ancient Kannada literature - Kavichakravarthi Ponna, Adikavi Panpa and Kavichakravarti Ranna - were patronised by Rashtrkuta king Krishna III, as well as by Tailapa and Satyashraya of Western Chalukyas.

Kizhar:
Kizhar were the heads of the villages or a small territory, later known as nadu. They were the chiefs of tribal communities living in specific areas. The Vendar were kings controlling larger, fertile territories.
Velir:
The Velir, who were many in number, controlled the territories of varied geographical nature, mainly hilly and forest areas, that were in between the muvendar's fertile territories.

Karikalan's foremost military achievement was the defeat of the Cheras and Pandyas, supported by as many as eleven Velir chieftains at Venni. He is credited with converting forest into habitable regions and developing agriculture by providing irrigation through the embankment of the Kaveri and building reservoirs.

1. Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan-Iran border;
2. Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north;
3. Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and
4. Daimabad (Maharashtra,India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation.
5. Its core area was In the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.