Sources of revenue were Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
The Chauth was divided into
25 percent for the ruler
66 percent for Maratha officials and military heads for the maintenance of troops.
6 percent for the Pant Sachiv (Chief, a Brahman by birth)
3 percent for the tax collectors
Customs, excise duties and sale of forest produce also yielded much income. Goldsmiths were allowed to mint coins on payment of royalty to the government and getting license for the purpose.
They had to maintain a certain standard. When it was found that the standard was not being met all private mints were closed in 1760 and a central mint was established.
Miscellaneous taxes were also collected. It included
Tax on land, held by Deshmukhs and Deshpandes.
Tax on land kept for the village Mahars.
Tax on the lands irrigated by wells.
House tax from all except Brahmins and village officials.
Annual fee for the testing of weights and measures.
Tax on the re-marriage of widows.
Tax on sheep and buffaloes.
Pasture fee.
Tax on melon cultivation in river beds.
Succession duty.
Duty on the sale of horses, etc.
When the Maratha government was in financial difficulty, it levied on all landholders, Kurja-Patti or Tasti-Patti, a tax equal to one year's income of the taxpayer.

1. Sufism had become an influential aspect of Islamic social life as it extended over almost the entire Muslim community.
2. Sufism represents the inward or esoteric side and the mystical dimension of Islam.
3. Sufi saints transcended religious and communal distinctions, and worked for promoting the interest of humanity at large.
4. The Sufis were a class of philosophers remarkable for their religious catholicity and tolarance.
5. Sufis regarded God as the supreme beauty and believed that one must admire it, take delight in His thought and concentrate his attention on Him only.
6. They believed that God is 'Mashuq' (beloved) and Sufis are the' Ashiqs' (lovers). Sufism crystallized into various 'Silsilahs' or orders.
7. The most popular Sufi orders were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.
8 Sufism took root in both rural and urban areas, arid exercised a deep social, political and cultural influence on the masses.
9. It rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy, and endeavored to create a new world order in which spiritual bliss was the ultimate goal.
10. At a time when struggle for political power was the prevailing trend, the Sufi saints reminded people of their moral obligations.
11. In a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony.
12 The most important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim conflicts and prejudices by forging the feelings of solidarity and brotherhood between these two religious communities.

Causes:
• The rebellion first began as a mutiny in Barrackpore (near Calcutta). Manga1 Pandey murdered his officer in January 1857 and a mutiny broke out there.
• In the following month, at Meerut, of the 90 sepoys who were to receive their cartridges only five obeyed orders. On 10 May three sepoy regiments revolted, killed their officers, and released those who had been imprisoned.
• The next day they reached Delhi, murdered Europeans, and seized that city. The rebels proclaimed Bahadur Shah II as emperor. Henry Havelock, who was sent to deal with the situation, defeated Nana Sahib the day after the massacre.
• Neill, who was left there, took terrible vengeance and those whom he regarded as guilty were executed. Towards the close of November Tania Topi seized Kanpur but it was soon recovered by Campbell.
Result:
• A Royal Durbar was held at Allahabad on November 1, 1858. The proclamation issued by Queen Victoria was read at the Durbar by Lord Canning, who was the last Governor General and the first Viceroy of India.
• Hereafter India would be governed by and in the name of the British Monarch through a Secretary of State. The Secretary of State was to be assisted by a Council ofIndia consisting of fifteen members. As a result, the Court of Directors and the Board of Control of the East India Company were abolished and the Crown and Parliament became constitutionally responsible for the governance of India. The separate army of the East India Company was abolished and merged with that of Crown.
• Proclamation endorsed the treaties made by the Company with Indian princes, promised to respect their rights, dignity and honour, and disavowed any ambition to extend the existing British possessions in India.
• The new council of 1861 was to have Indian nomination, since the Parliament thought the Legislative Council of 1853 consisted of only Europeans who had never bothered to consult Indian opinion and that led to the crisis.
• The Doctrine of Lapse and the policy of annexation to be given up. A general amnesty (pardon) to be granted to the rebels except those who directly. involved in killing the British subjects.

1. In 1813, when the Company Charter was renewed, it contained a clause intended to force on the Company the initiative for a regular educational policy.
2. Hastings encouraged the foundation of vernacular schools by missionaries. He was the patron of the Hindu College, established at Calcutta in 1817, supported by the Indian public for the teaching of English and of Western science.
3. The cause of education was further promoted by missionaries like Alexander Duff. Thanks to Hastings liberal outlook, press censorship instituted in 1799 was abolished
4. It was in such an atmosphere that the Bengali Weekly, the Samachar Darpan was started in 1818.
5. The Charter of 1833 emphasized the development of the country primarily in the interest of its inhabitants.
6. William Bentinck, appointed the first Governor General of united India reformed the society by suppressing thuggee (robbery and murder committed by the thugs in accordance with their ritual), abolishing sati and introducing English as the medium of instruction in schools and colleges.
7. This he thought would facilitate Indianization of the services. Bentinck founded the Calcutta Medical College in March 1835
8. The students of this college were sent to London in 1844 to complete their studies. Ten years after the establishment of the Calcutta Medical College, the Grant Medical College in Bombay was founded in 1845.
9. In 1847 the Thomason Engineering College at Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee) came into existence. In 1849 a school for girls was founded in Calcutta.
10. Macaulay came to India as a law member in 1835. He was appointed President of the Board of Education. He had a poor opinion of indigenous learning. Macaulay recommended and government accepted to make English the literary and official language of India.

The Social Reform Movement in Tamilnadu
The reform movements of the north India had its own impact on Tamilnadu. Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj had their branches. Keshab Chandra Sen visited Madras and lectured here. But Tamilnadu also saw its own reform movements.
The Sri Vaikunda Swamigal:
• The Sri Vaikunda Swamigal's cult, which survives to this day, was organized in the 1830s. Born in a poor family (1809) at Sastankoil Vilai (now known as Swamithoppu), a village then in south Travancore (the present day Kanyakumari district), Muthukutti, spent his childhood in the village pial school, learning religious and moral texts.
• He also learnt the Bible and became well-versed in Christian theology.
Ramalinga Swamigal :
• Ramalinga Swamigal was born in a modest family near Chidambaram and spent his early life in Madras.
• He never had formal schooling, but exhibited great scholarship.
• Inspired by the Saiva Thevaram and Thiruvasagam hymns, he began to compose moving poems on his own.
• In his time, Saiva religion was in the grip of Saiva monasteries such as those at Thiruvaduthurai, Dharumapuram and Thiruppanandal.
Buddhist Revivalism and Iyotheethoss Pandithar
• Buddhismhad been practically wiped out in the Tamil country by the beginning of the second millennium. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, there was a revival of Buddhism. The publication of the complete edition of Jeevaka Chintamani (1887) and Manimekalai (1898) were landmarks in the recovery of heterodox traditions.
• But the most important figure was Iyotheethoss Pandithar (1845-1914). A native doctor by profession, he was an erudite scholar. He also came under the influence of Colonel Olcott of the Theosophical Society.
• In the 1890s he began a movement among the Adi Dravidars arguing that they were the original Buddhists who had been consigned to 'untouchability' due to their opposition to Vedic Brahminism.
• He re-read classical Tamil and other texts to make his case. He also encouraged the conversion to Buddhism. He found the greatest following in north Tamilnadu and among the working classes of the Kolar Gold Fields.
• In this movement, M. Singavelu and Prof P. Lakshmi Narasu also played an important role. Pandithar ran a weekly journal called Oru Paisa Tamilan (later Tamilan) from 1908 until his death.

1. The Ain-i-Akbari lists the various crops cultivated during the Rabi and Kharif seasons.
2. Tobacco and maize were introduced in the seventeenth century.
3. Chilli and groundnut came later. Pineapple was introduced in the sixteenth century.
4. Grafted varieties of mango came to be developed by the Portuguese.
5. Potato, tomato and guava came later. Indigo was another important commercial crop during the Mughal period.
6. Sericulture underwent spectacular growth in Bengal to the extent that it became the chief supplier of silk to world trade.
7. The farmers were compelled to pay land tax they had to sell the surplus in the market.
8. The land tax was a share of the actual produce and was a major source of revenue for the Mughal ruling class.
9. The administration determined the productivity of the land and assessed the tax based on the total measurement.
10. Akbar promulgated the Zabt System (introduced by Todal Mal): money revenue rates were now fixed on each unit of area according to the crops cultivated.
11. The schedules containing these rates for different localities applicable year after year were called dasturs.
12. The urban economy was based on craft industry. Cotton textile industry employed large numbers of people as cotton carders, spinners, dyers, printers and washers. Iron, copper, diamond mining and gun making were other chief occupations.
13. Kharkhanas were workshops where expensive craft products were produced. The royal kharkhanas manufactured articles for the use of the royal family and nobility.
14. The excess production of the artisans was diverted to the merchants and traders for local and distant markets.

1. Mohammed I succeeded Bahman Shah.
2. There was a decade-long war with Vijayanagar, most of which related to control over the Raichur doab.
3. Neither side gained lasting control over the region, in spite of the huge fatalities in battles.
4. Two bitter wars with Vijayanagar gained him nothing.
5. But his attack on Warangal in 1363 brought him a large indemnity, including the important fortress of Golkonda and the treasured turquoise throne, which thereafter became the throne of the Bahmani kings.
6. Mohammed I established a good system of government that was followed by all the successor sultanates as well as by the Marathas later
7. He appointed a council of eight ministers of state.
8. Vakil-us-saltana or lieutenant of the kingdom, the immediate subordinate of the sovereign.
9. Waziri-kull, who supervised the work of all other ministers;
10. Amir-i-jumla, minister of finance;
11. Wasir-i-ashraf, minister of foreign affairs and master of ceremonies;
12. Nazir, assistant minister for finance;
13. Peshwa who was associated with the lieutenant of the kingdom;
14. Kotwal or chief of police and city magistrate in the capital, and
14. Sadr-i-jahan or chief justice and minister of religious affairs and endowments. He took strong measures for the suppression of highway robbery. Institutional and geographic consolidation under Muhammad Shah laid a solid foundation for the kingdom.
15. He built two mosques at Gulbarga. One, the great mosque, completed in 1367, remainsan impressive building.

1. The Vijayanagar area is concerned there took place migrations of Kannada and Telugu warriors and their followers into Tamil areas and elsewhere.
2. Many of the Nayaka chiefs belong to these language groups. Peasants, artisans and other toiling groups were also part of this migration.
3. The other consequence was the widening gap between the ruling class and the ruled.
4. All the foreign visitors refer to the enormous riches and affluence enjoyed by the rulers, the officials and the upper echelons in the capital cities like Vijayanagar, Bijapur, and the like, in contrast to widespread poverty among the masses.
5. They also refer to the prevalence of slavery.
6. The state had to derive their revenue only by taxing the people.
7. It is found that during the Sangama dynasty when the Vijayanagar rule was extended to new areas, their officers were harsh in tax collection, which provoked the toiling people to rise in revolt. One such revolt took place in 1430 in central parts of Tamil Nadu.
8. This was the revolt in which all the basic producers joined forgetting their caste differences.
9. The revolt took place due to the unjust and arbitrary tax demands of the government including the pradhani (governor), his military bodies, and the landlords.
10. It is said the Vijayanagar Prince intervened and pacified the revolting people by allowing tax reduction .

• The British had to fight three wars (1746- 1763) with the French to establish their supremacy, which in history are called the Carnatic wars.
First Carnatic War 1746-48:
• The Austrian War of Succession and Seven Years War fought in Europe had their repercussions in India.
• The Austrian ruler Charles VI died in 1740 and was succeeded by his daughter Maria Theresa.
• France did not support her succession and joined hands with German-speaking territories of Austria such as Bavaria, Saxony and Spain:
• Frederick II (known as Frederick the Great of Prussia) taking advantage of the emerging political situation invaded and annexed Silesia, an Austrian province, with the support of France.
• The wars fought between Britain and France in Europe also led to clashes between these two countries over their colonial possessions in North America and India.
The Second Carnatic War: 1749-54
 • In Europe peace prevailed between the British and the French. But the two colonial powers could not live in peace in India.
• They played one native ruler against the other. Dupleix wanted to enhance the French influence by involving in the wars of succession in both Hyderabad and Arcot .
The Third Carnatic War: 1756-1763
• The third Carnatic War was an echo of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) which broke out in Europe in 1756: It was a global conflict and was fought between the two arch-rivals Britain and France.
• The war was fought in North America (resulting in the American War of Independence), and West Africa (which later became the French West Africa).
• In India it manifested itself in the Third Carnatic war. Before turning our attention to the Third Carnatic War, let us see what happened in Bengal in the meantime.

• For the first time in the political history of India the Europeans conquered and seized territories from the Indian rulers.
• Indian rulers remained divided and Europeans took advantage of it.
• The Europeans adopted new methods in the warfare. Gun powder and superior artillery played a significant role.
• The Portuguese could contain the monopolistic trade of the Arabs. But it did not really help them. Instead, it benefited the British who removed pirates on the sea routes and made the sea voyage safe.
• The marriages between Europeans and Indians, encouraged by the Portuguese in the territories occupied by them, created a new Eurasian racial group. They were the ones who were later taken to other Portuguese colonies in Africa and Asia.
• The presence of Portuguese is very much evident in Chennai's San Thome. Mylapore was the Portuguese 'Black Town'. (Black Town of the British period was George Town)

1. The Pandya rulers created a number of irrigation sources and they were named after the members of the royal family.
2. Some of them were Vasudeva Peraru, Virapandya Peraru, Srivallaba Peraru and Parakirama Pandya Peraru. The tanks were named Tiiumaleri, Maraneri, Kaliyaneri and Kadaneri.
3. On either side of the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni, canals leading to the tanks for irrigation were built.
4. The SendanMaran inscription of Vaigai river bed speaks of a sluice installed by him to distribute the water from the river.
5. Sri Maran Srivallabhan created a big tank, which is till now in use. Like Pallavas in northern districts, Pandyas introduced the irrigation technology in the southern districts of Tamil country.
6. In building the banks of the tanks, the ancient architect used the thread to maintain the level. Revetment of the inner side of the banks with stone slabs is one of the features of irrigation technique in Pandya country.

1. Chola temples became the arena of social celebrations and functioned as social institutions. They became the hub of societal space in organising social, political, economic and cultural activities.
2. The prime temple officials were koyirramar, koyilkanakku (temple accountant), deva- kanmi (agent of god), srivaisnavar, cantesar (temple manager) and others.
3. They promoted the development of learning, dance, music, painting and drama. A play called Rajarajanatakam, based on the life of Rajaraja I, was performed in the Thanjavur temple.
4. The festivals of ChithiraiTiruvizha, Kartigai and Aippasivizha were celebrated. It is said that singing hymns in temple premises promoted oral literacy.
5. Traditional dance items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu were portrayed in the form of sculptures and paintings in the temples in Kilapalivur, Tiruvorriyur.
6. Nirutya and kama poses are shown in sculptural forms in the Thanjavur big temple. Traditional Tamil musical instruments also were portrayed in this way.
7. Temples functioned as banks by advancing loans and by purchasing and receiving endowments and donations.
8. They also became educational centres as training was imparted in Vedas, music and the arts. Sculpture and metal work too were promoted. Temple accounts were audited and the auditor was called koyilkanakku.

1. The Cholas built and patronised innumerable temples.
2. The royal temples in Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Chozhapuram and Darasuram are the repositories of architecture, sculpture, paintings and iconography of the Chola arts.
3. The temples became the hub of social, economic, cultural and political activities.
4. The paraphernalia of the temples including temple officials, dancers, musicians, singers, players of musical instruments and their masers headed by the priests worshipping the gods reflect the royal court.
5. In the initial stages, architecturally, the Chola temples are simple and modest. Sepulchral temples (pallip-padai) also were built where the kings were buried.

1. Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly from the cultivators. The village headman who traditionally enjoyed the right to collect them was now deprived of it.
2. The tax pressure of Ala-ud-din was on the rich and not on the poor.
3. Ala-ud-din set up the postal system to keep in touch with all parts of his sprawling empire.

1. The geographical location of Arabia facilitated trade contact between India and Arabia. As sea-faring traders the pre-Islamic Arabs had maritime contacts with the western and eastern coasts of India.
2. While there were south Indian settlements in the Persian Gulf, Arabs too settled in Malabar and the Coromandel Coast.
3. Arabs who married Malabar women and settled down on the West Coast were called Mappillais (sons-in-law).
4. Arab military expedition in 712 and subsequent Ghaznavid and the Ghori military raids, intended to loot and use the resources seized to strengthen their power in Central Asia, created a relationship of the conqueror and the conquered .
5. Following the invasion of Afghanistan by Khurasan (Eastern Iran) Shah and later by Chengiz Khan severed the ties of North India Sultanate with Afghanistan.
6. Mongol invasions destroyed the Ghurid Sulatanate and Ghazni, and cut into the resources of Sultan Nasir-ud-din Qubacha (1206-1228), the ruler of Uchch and Multan.
7. Thus the Sultan Iltutmish had the opportunity of expanding his influence in northern India that enabled Muslim rulers to rule Indian provinces with Delhi as capital for about four centuries.
8. The Sultanate (1206-1526) itself was not homogenous. Its rulers belonged to five distinct categories: (a) Slave Dynasty (1206-1290) (b) Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320) (c) Tughlaq Dynasty (l320-1414) (d) Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451) and (e) LodiDynasty (1451-1526).

1. The Pallavas had maritime trade with south-east Asia, where by now there were three major kingdoms: Kambuja (Cambodia), Champa (Annam), and Srivijaya (the southern Malaya peninsula and Sumatra).
2. On the west coast, the initiative in the trade with the West was gradually passing into the hands of the foreign traders settled along the coast, mainly Arabs.
3. Indian traders were becoming suppliers of goods rather than carriers of goods to foreign countries, and communication with the west became indirect, via Arabs, and limited to trade alone.

1. The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning.
2. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made great progress during their reign.
3. Amoghavarsha I was the author of Prasnottaramalika, a Sanskrit work, and Kavirajamarga, a Kannada work. Jinasena wrote the Adipurana of the Jains.
4. Krishna II's spiritual guide, Gunabhadra, wrote the Mahapurana of the Jains.
5. The three gems of ancient Kannada literature - Kavichakravarthi Ponna, Adikavi Panpa and Kavichakravarti Ranna - were patronised by Rashtrkuta king Krishna III, as well as by Tailapa and Satyashraya of Western Chalukyas.

1. On his accession in 606 CE Harsha focused his attention on the affairs of his sister Rajyasri who had fled to Vindhya mountains to escape from the evil design of Deva Gupta of Malwa to covet her.
2. Harsha went to Vindhya mountain ranges and succeeded in saving his sister who was about to burn herself after killing Deva Gupta.
3. Harsha consoled Rajyasri and brought her back to the kingdom of Kanauj.
4. Later Rajyasri took to Buddhism and was instrumental in converting Harsha to Buddhism.

Types of Tenures	Nature of Holding
Nividharma	Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent, in North and Central India and Bengal.
Nividharma aksayana	A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of income derived from it.
Aprada dharma	Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipient is not permitted to gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either.
Bhumichchi dranyaya	Right of ownership acquired by a person making barren land cultivable for the first time. This land was free from any rent liability.
Agrahara grants	Given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free.
Devagrahara grants	A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants for the repair and worship of temples.
Secular grants	Grants made to feudatories of Guptas.

1. Around the first century CE, the Satavahana kingdom was established in the Deccan area, comprising the modern states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
2. This, however, was not like the centralised empire of the Mauryas, and the provincial governors of the Satavahanas had a considerable degree of autonomy.
3. The second development was the discovery of the pattern of monsoon winds in the Arabian Sea in the first century CE by Hippalus, an Egyptian sailor.
4. A first century CE account in Greek, the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), is the most reliable source of information on the ports of the Indian coast and trade.
5. Archaeological findings confirm the information from all these sources.

During the reign of Kushanas, there was great creative energy when art and literature flourished.
1. The Greek influence led to an Indo-Greek style of sculpture and art commonly referred to as Gandhara art. Statues of Buddha, sculpted particularly in Taxila
2. The north-western regions, show him in graceful garments, surrounded by cherubs and leaves inspired by the Greek tradition.
3. The red sandstone sculpture with intricate carving produced near Mathura.
4. The Buddhists began to carve out rock caves in the hills of western India, which served as religious centres with chaityas and viharas, stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri caves in Mumbai.
5. Large statues of Buddha were sculpted in these caves as apart of the Mahayana tradition, and in later centuries, they were further-embellished with murals of extraordinary beauty, as seen in the Ajanta caves.
6. Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist philosophers such as Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna.
7. Asvaghosha is known for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the author of the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts.
8. The great dramatist Bhasa, whose plays werere-discovered only about a hundred years ago in South India.

A closer look at the Sangam literature reveals that social differentiation is evident in the Marutham region.
1. The territorial associations are very clear in the case of the Muvendar, and their important position is corroborated by the Greco-Roman texts from the first century CE.
2. Warfare for territorial expansion was a major theme of Puratthinai
3. Evidence for taxation at the highways and in the port of Kaviripattinam is cited.
4. The Chera king is spoken as receiving the resources from the hills and the port of Musiri.
5. Trade played an important role between the late first century BCE and third century CE.

1. The edicts of Ashoka thus constitute the most concrete source of information about the Mauryan Empire.
2. There are 33 edicts comprising 14 Major Rock Edicts, 2 known as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts,
3. Minor Rock Edicts and a few Minor Pillar Inscriptions.
4. The Major Rock Edicts extend from Kandahar in Afghanistan, Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in northwest Pakistan to Uttarakhand district in the north, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west, Odisha in the east and as far south as Karnataka and Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh.
5. Minor Pillar Inscriptions have been found as far north as Nepal (near Lumbini). The edicts were written mostly in the Brahmi script and in Magadhi and Prakrit.
6. The Kandahar inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic,while the two inscriptions in north-west Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.

About 500 years after Mahavira's death, in about 79 or 82 CE, a schism occurred in Jainism. Magadha was affected by severe famine and some of the Jaina monks under Bhadrabahu went south to maintain their strict discipline. They remained without garments and were known as Digambaras (space-clad or naked). Others stayed back under the leadership of Sthulabhadra and adopted a white garment and were known as Svetambaras (white-clad). The schism weakened Jainism in Magadha, but it foundardent followers in Gujarat, Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka.

The planned towns of Harappa
1. A civic authority perhaps controlled the planning of the towns.
2. The Harappans used baked and unbaked bricks, and stones for construction.
3. The towns had a grid pattern and drainages were systematically built.
4. The houses were built of mud bricks while the drainages were built with burnt bricks.
5. Houses had more than one floor.
The planned towns of Mohenjo-Daro
1. The site of Mohenjo-Daro had a planned town, built on a platform.
2. It has two distinct areas.
3. One is identified as a citadel and another as the lower town.
4. The houses had bathrooms paved with burnt bricks and proper drains.
5. Some houses had stairs indicating the existence of an upper floor.
6. The houses had multiple rooms. 
7. Many of the houses had a central courtyard with rooms all around.