The chert, a fine grained sedimentary rock, was found in the region of Rohri in Pakistan. It was used by the Harappans for making stone blades and tools.

Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna and other river valleys.

The period before the invention of script is broadly divided into Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.

The Great Bath is a tank situated within a courtyard. The corridors were present on all four sides and stairs are seen on the northern and southern sides. It was well paved with several adjacent rooms.

1. It is the only existing fossil find of human ancestors in India.
2. The only well-known hominin fossil of India was found at Hathnora near Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh.

Evidence of ostrich has been found in some pre-historic sites of India. The egg shell of this bird had been used as beads and those from Patne have been dated to 25,000 BP. They are found in Bhirnbetka and Patne.

The early Acheulian tools include polyhedrons, spheroids, hand axes, cleavers and flake tools.

The Indus people worshipped nature.
1. They worshipped the pipal tree.
2. Some of the terracotta figures appear to be mother goddess.
3. Fire altars have been identified at Kalibangan.
4. They buried the dead. Burials were made elaborately and evidence of cremation is also reported.
5. The Harappan burials have pottery, ornaments,jewellery, copper mirrors and beads.

The Mesolithic people lived in semi permanent and temporary settlements.
1. They occupied caves and open grounds.
2. They buried the dead.
3. They had artistic skill.
4. They were spread over wider geographical regions.

Based on research, two independent cultural traditions of hand axe (Acheulian) and pebble-flake (Sohanian) industries were, confirmed in India. Acheulian industry mainly had hand axes and cleavers.
1. The Sohan industry is considered to have used only chopper and chopping tools.
2. The Sohan industry gets its name from the Sohan river valley of Pakistan.
3. These two cultural traditions are not considered distinct any longer.
4. Recent studies argue that there was no independent Sohan tradition as Acheulian tools are found in the Sohan industry as well.

1. An interesting find is of a possible shrine, indicated by a block of sandstone surrounded by a rubble circle, similar to the contemporary shrines. Found at Baghor in Uttar Pradesh, it is the earliest known evidence of a shrine in India.
Write a note on Mesolithic sites in India
Mesolithic sites in India are found in Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama (all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka). Rock shelter sites are found in Lekhakia, Baghai Khor, Adamgarh and Bhimbetka. Coastal sites are seen at Mumbai, Teri sites of Thoothukudyin TamilNadu and Vishakapatnam, which have microlithic evidence.
Give a evidence for the farnaul.
1. The faunal evidence from this period shows that people belonging to this period hunted cattle, gaur, buffalo, barasingha, porcupines, sambar, chital, gazelle, hog deer, nilgai, jackal, turtle, fish, wild hare, lizard fox and monitor lizard. Bones of rhinoceros and elephant have also been found. They used spears, bow and arrow and traps. The paintings of Bhimbetka show that various animals were hunted and for this men and women went together.
2. The people used fire and perhaps roasted food. Domestic animal bones of cattle, sheep, goats, pig and dog have been found at Kanewal, Loteshwar and Ratanpur, and from Adamgarh and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh sites. Camel bones have been found from Kanewal.
Write a note on Early Dentistry in the Neolithic Mehrgarh
1. The human ancestors had knowledge of medicinal herbs and were capable of taking care of health for survival from the pre-historic times. As their ways of life changed, new diseases appeared and they had to find remedies.
2. From the Neolithic period, people began to eat ground grain and cooked food, which caused dental and other health problems. The earliest evidence for drilling human tooth (of a living person) has been found at Mehrgarh. It is seen as a prelude to dentistry.
Write an note on Geographical Area and the Settlements
The Indus civilisation and the contemporary cultures covered nearly 1.5 million sq. km area in India and Pakistan. The settlements of Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan- Iran border; Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north; Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh; India) in the east and Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation. Its core area was in the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.
Write an note on Indus Civilisation and Tamil Civilisation
1. The Indus Civilisation represents the first urbanisation of Indian history.
2. The origin and authorship of the Indus Civilisation are keenly debated historical questions. The Indus script has not yet been conclusively deciphered and hence the authorship is not certain. The graffiti found on the megalithic burial pots of South India and the place names presented are cited to establish the relationship between Indus and Tamil cultures.
3. The archaeological evidence points to several groups of people living in Tamil Nadu and South India continuously from the Mesolithic period. One cannot rule out the migration of a few groups from the Indus region. More research is necessary before arriving at any definite conclusion.
4. The towns of ancient Tamizhagam such as Arikamedu, Keezhadi and Uraiyur that flourished are part of the second urbanisation of India and these towns are quite different from the Indus cities.
 

(i) Pottery
1. The Harappans used diverse varieties of pottery for daily use.
2. They use well-fired pottery.
3. Their potteries have a deep red slip and black paintings.
4. The pottery are shaped like dish-on-stands, storage jars, perforated jars, goblets, S-shaped jars,plates, dishes, bowls and pots.
(ii) Trade and exchange
1. Harappans had close trade contacts with the Mesopotamians and also with various, cultures of India.
2. The Harappan seals and materials have been found in the Sumerian sites in Oman, Bahrain, and Iraq and Iran.
3. Carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold and varieties of wood were exported to
4. Mesopotamia. Harappans also interacted with various regions of India and acquired raw materials and processed them.
(iii) Weights and measures
1. Harappans had developed proper weights and measures.
2. Cubical chert weights have been unearthed from Harappan sites.
3. The weights exhibit a binary system.
4. The ratio of weight is doubled as 1:2:4:8:16:32.
5. The small weight measure of 16th ratio weighs 13.63 grams.
6. They also used a measuring scale in which one inch was around 1.75 cm.
7. Weights made of chert were cubical.
8. They might have been used for weighing jewellery and metal.
(iv) Seals, sealing and scripts:
1. The seals from various media such as steatite, copper, terracotta and ivory are frequently found in the Harappan sites.
2. The longest text has about twenty six signs.
3. Some scholars are of the view that it is Dravidian.
4. Seals might have been used as an identity marker on the materials that were transported.

1. The cultural phase that followed the Middle Palaeolithic is called Upper Palaeolithic.
2. This period is marked by innovation in tool technology and increased cognitive capability of humans.
3. Microliths (tiny stone tools) were introduced in the Upper Palaeolithic Period
4. The tools were made using different varieties of silica-rich raw materials.
5. The lithic blade industry advanced in this period.