After the decline of the Indus Civilization numerous cultures developed across north India. Copper, followed by iron, came to be widely used. Iron helped to expand areas of cultivation leading to agrarian surplus. As this facilitated feeding of more number of people there were greater instances of in-migration and population growth. The Late Harappan cultures suggest that some of the groups moved into eastern direction, after the decline of the Indus Civilization.

Quarrying was immediately banned and archaeological excavation commenced under the supervision of Alexander Rea.

The main collections of Vedic hymns are called samhitas. The Rig Vedic- samhita is the earliest text.

Women attended assemblies and offered sacrifices. Marriage was common but primitive practices were also continued. Polyandry seems to have existed, and widow remarriage was also known. People married at the age of 16-17, according to scholars, and there is little evidence of child marriage.

The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks about the lands and gods of the people speaking the Indo-Iranian languages.

Yajur, Sama and Atharva

According to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda the various varnas emerged thus: Brahmanas from the mouth, the kshatriya from the arms, the vaisya from the thighs and the sudra from the feet of Purusha, when he was sacrificed. Various professional groups such as warriors, priests, cattle-keepers, farmers, barbers are also mentioned. Panis were itinerary traders or perhaps caravan traders. Panis are also seen as enemies in some verses.

The Chalcolithic people also began to domesticate animals in addition to agriculture. They had cattle, sheep, pigs and goats and buffaloes.

Agro-pastoral communities of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Iron Ages and Vedic Cultures.

1. The caste system was very flexible and it was based on one's profession rather than birth during the rig vedic period but however it gradually became complex and caste system was associated with birth in subsequent period.
2. There was no concept of untouchabilities in rig vedic but it was a creation of later period. Shudra or the lowest caste was assigned the task of serving the upper castes.
3. Women were treated equal to men. Women were allowed to take part in political process. The birth of girl child was more preferred. However in the later vedic period the women were treated as second citizen and evil practices of child marriage,sati etc became prevalent.
4. The rig vedic people were mostly pastoral and lived in a small territory where they had a strong sense of brotherhood. Their polical life was democratic in nature.
5. The common people elected their king in samiti (local assembly).In the later period the democratic system declined and absolute monarchy emerged. Bigger kingdom began to annex smaller kingdom thus, rise in imperialistic tendency.
6. In the religious sphere the rig vedic people personified and deified the nature and worshipped them. Both men and women worshipped them. In later period religion became more complex with brahmins taking dominant roles and requiring number of expensive sacrifices which were out of common.

The area of eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Punjab and fringes of Western Uttar Pradesh.

The southern part of India has not produced cultural evidence of a full- fledged chalcolithic culture. Perforated and spouted vessels have been found in some sites. Copper bronze tools like chisels and flat axes occur at these sites. Stone tools continued to be used in this area. Black on red ware pottery is found. These people survived through animal rearing and agriculture. Millets, pulses and horse gram were cultivated, and fruits, leaves and tubers were collected.

Black and red ware, along with partial human remains and iron objects, were unearthed recently at Vadamalkunda in Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu. A few stone slabs were also found at the site. A centuries old menhir at Singaripalayam excavated near Kundadam in Tiruppur district points to the existence of an ancient settlement along the banks of River Uppar.

The concept of polity developed in the Rig Vedic time.
1. Various units of habitation and divisions such as the janas, vis, gana, grama and kula are referred to in the Rig Veda.
2. The polity of the Rig Vedic period was that of a tribal society.
3. The chief of the tribe was the main political head and he was called rajan.
4. The purohita or priest offered advice to the king. Senani was the chief of army.
5. The officer who controlled the territory was called Vrajapati.
6. He helped the kulapas or heads of fighting groups called gramini.
7. Gramini was the head of the village and fighting unit.

Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware culture is found in northern India dating to the Chalcolithic period. The OCP pottery has red slip and appears ochre in colour (the ochre colour comes off when the pottery is touched) and hence, it is called Ochre Coloured Pottery. It has black painted designs. The OCP comes in the form of jars, storage jars, bowls, and basins. The OCP sites produced copper figures and objects and therefore it is also known as "copper hoard culture." It is a rural culture and has evidence of the cultivation of rice, barley, and legumes. They also had pastoralism with evidence of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and dogs. The villages had wattle-and daub houses. They used copper and terracotta ornaments.