The cavalry was naturally the main strength of the Maratha army. Every jagirdar had to bring a stipulated number of horsemen for a general muster, every year.
The horsemen were divided into three classes based on the quality of the horses they kept

1. The most salient features of his teachings is denunciation of polytheism, idolatry,and caste.
2. He was equally unsparing in his condemnation of Muslim formalism.

The outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843) forced the people, without any prompting from the government, to leave for Ceylon to work as coolies in coffee and tea plantations under indentured labour system

The Singh Sabha Movement was formed in 1873, with a two-fold objective
• to make available modem western education to the Sikhs
• to counter the proselytizing activities of Christian missionaries as well as Hindu revivalists
• A network of Khalsa Schools was established throughout Punjab

1. The ruler of Mewar, Rana Udai Singh, put up a great fight before losing Chittor, which was conquered by Akbar after a siege of six months.
2. The capture of Chittor was followed by the surrender of Rajput states like Ranthambhor, Kalinjar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer.

1.The Golkonda Fort is located about 11 kms from Hyderabad on a hill 120 meters hight.
2. The Golkonda Fort is popular for its acoustic architecture.
3. The highest point of the fort is Bala Hissar.
4. There is said to be a secret underground tunnel which leads from the Durbar Hall to one of the palaces at the foot of the hills.

The landholders of vellanvagai villages were placed next in the social hierarchy. Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land but had to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and holders of vellanvagai villages. While landholders retained melvararn (major share in harvest), the ulukudi got kizhvaram (lower share). Labourers (paniceymakkal) and slaves (adimaigal) stayed at the bottom of social hierarchy.

1. Criminal law was more severe than that of the Gupta age.
2. Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice.
3. Banishment and the cutting of limbs of the body were the usual punishments.
4. Trial by ordeal was in practice .
5. Life imprisonment was the punishment for the violations of the laws and for plotting against the king.

The defining event of Ashoka's rule was his campaign against Kalinga (present-day Odisha) in the eighth year of his reign. This is the only recorded military expedition of the Mauryas. The number of those killed in battle, those who died subsequently, and those deported ran into tens of thousands. The campaign had probably been more ferocious and brutal than usual because this was a punitive war against Kalinga, which had broken away from the Magadha Empire (the Hathigumpha inscription speaks of Kalinga as a part of the Nanda Empire). Ashoka was devastated by the carnage advised and aided by Chanakya, known for political manoeuvring, in governing his empire.

The Indus people worshipped nature.
1. They worshipped the pipal tree.
2. Some of the terracotta figures appear to be mother goddess.
3. Fire altars have been identified at Kalibangan.
4. They buried the dead. Burials were made elaborately and evidence of cremation is also reported.
5. The Harappan burials have pottery, ornaments,jewellery, copper mirrors and beads.

1. The cultural phase that followed the Middle Palaeolithic is called Upper Palaeolithic.
2. This period is marked by innovation in tool technology and increased cognitive capability of humans.
3. Microliths (tiny stone tools) were introduced in the Upper Palaeolithic Period
4. The tools were made using different varieties of silica-rich raw materials.
5. The lithic blade industry advanced in this period.

• Albuquerque (1509-1515), the.successor of Almeida, was the real founder of the Portuguese empire in India.
• He defeated Yusuf Adil Khan, the ruler of Bijapur in 1510 and captured Goa.
• He developed Goa into a centre of commerce by making all the ships sail on that route.
• He encouraged people of all faiths to settle in Goa.

The Prarthana Samaj as an organization never had any great influence but its members, like M. G Ranade (1852-1901), R. G Bhandarkar, and K.T. Telang.

• According to the treaty of Srirangapatnam, the Tipu was to give up half of his dominions, pay three crores of rupees as indemnity, and pledge two of his sons as hostages.
• The allies were given equal shares of the indemnity and of the ceded territories

1.Harihara and Bukka, the eldest sons of one Sangama, earlier serving the Hoysala rulers of Karnataka, asserted their independence and laid foundation for a new kingdom in about 1336
2. Initially their capital was in or near about Anegondi on the north bank of the Tungabhadra river.But soon it was shifted to the Hoysala town Hosapattana (near Hampi) on the south bank.
3. The capital was expanded and renamed Vijayanagara, the city of Victory.

The Jats (Mathura district), the Satnamis (Haryana region), and the Sikhs rebelled against Aurangzeb.

1. After defeating the Shahi king Anandapala, Mahmud went beyond Punjab, penetrating deep into the Indo-Gangetic plain.
2. Before reaching Kanauj, Mahmud raided Mathura. In later historiography, of both the British and Indian nationalists, Mahmud is notorious for his invasion of the temple city of Somnath (1025) on the seashore in Gujarat.

1. Hieun Tsang recorded the fame of the Nalanda University. Students and scholars from the Buddhist countries like China, Japan, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Tibet
2. Some other countries of Central and Southeast Asia stayed and studied in the university.
3. Shilabhadra, a reputed Buddhist scholar, who probably hailed from Assam, was the head of the University during the visit of Hieun Tsang.
4. As an educational centre of international fame, Nalanda had 10,000 students on its rolls.
5. Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari, Jayasena, Devakara and Matanga were important teachers in the university receiving royal patronage.

1. There were merchants dealing with specific products like food grains, cloth, gold and jewellery in the markets of the big Cities.
2. Merchants were also involved in overseas trade, as well as overland trade.
3. Thus, the circuits of trade became more specialised with institutionalised arrangements to support the expanding commercial activities.

1. A centralised state required a new administrative framework to govern an extensive territory, the creation of a bureaucracy, resources of money and men for managing the administrationand the army.
2. A system of revenue administration had to be developed to raise the funds needed for the state through taxation.
3. A political formation led to the development of cities as administrative centres, distinct from villages and rural areas.
4. A large standing army was required for expanding and retaining the empire.

The Painted Grey ware sites reveal the development of agriculture and pastoralism, and the settlements of this period grew in dimension.

1. In 1815, the Governor of Madras received a communication from the Governor of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) asking for coolies to work on the coffee plantations.
2. The Madras Governor forwarded this letter to the collector of Thanjavur, who after enquiry reported back saying that the people were very much attached to the soil and hence unless some incentive was provided it was not easy to make them move out of their native soil.
3. But the outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843) forced the people, without any prompting from the government, to leave for Ceylon to work as coolies in coffee and tea plantations under indentured labour system.
4. During 1843-1868, nearly 1.5 million people (1,444,407) had gone from Madras to Ceylon as indentured labourers.

• Phule held radical views on social, religious, political and economic issues.
• He considered the caste system as an antithesis of the principle of human equality.
• He sought to raise. the morale of the non-Brahmins and united them to revolt against the centuries old inequality and social degradation.
• Towards this end Phule founded the Satya Shodak Samaj (Society for Seeking Truth) in 1875.
• His most important book is Gulamgiri (Slavery).

1. The Raja Krishna Dev of the Kakatiya dynasty with Warangal as capital constructed the Golkonda Fort on a granite hill.
2. During 1495-1496 the fort was handed over to Sultan Kali Kutub Khan as a Jagir (land grant).
3. He reconstructed and rechristened the mud fort into a granite fort and called the place Muhammed Nagar.
4. Later, the Golkonda fort came into the possession of the Bahmani dynasty.
5. Still later, the Qutub Shahi dynasty took over and made Golkonda its capital.
6. Golkonda fort owes much of its present grandeur to Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah, the fifth sultan of Qutb Shahi dynasty.
7. The subsequent generations saw Golkonda being fortified further with several additions and the formation of a beautiful city within.
8. By the 17th century, Golkonda was famous as a diamond market.
9. It gave the world some of the best-known diamonds, including the 'Kohinoor'.
10. The Golkonda Fort is located about 11 kms from Hyderabad on a hill 120 meters hight.
11. The Golkonda Fort is popular for its acoustic architecture.
12. The highest point of the fort is Bala Hissar.
13. There is said to be a secret underground tunnel which leads from the Durbar Hall to one of the palaces at the foot of the hills.

Shivaji began his military career at the age of nineteen. In 1646, he captured the fortress of Torna from the Sultan of Bijapur.
The fort of Raigad, located five miles east of Torna, was captured and wholly rebuilt. After the death of Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji took over all the jagirs of his father.
Subsequently, the forts of Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar and Kondana came-under his direct control. The Marathas had already captured Kalyan, an important town in that region.
Shivaji's father had been humiliated and imprisoned by the Sultan of Bijapur. He negotiated with Prince Murad, the Mughal Viceroy of the Deccan and expressed his wish to join Mughal service.
The Sultan of Bijapur released Shahji in 1649 on some conditions. So, Shivaji refrained from. his military activities from 1649 to 1655 During this period, he consolidated his power and toned up his administration.
In 1656, Shivaji re-started his military activities. He captured Jav1i in the Satara district and the immense booty that he won made him popular among the Marathas. Many young men joined his army. A new fort, Pratapgarh, was built two miles west of Javli.

1. Sufism had become an influential aspect of Islamic social life as it extended over almost the entire Muslim community.
2. Sufism represents the inward or esoteric side and the mystical dimension of Islam.
3. Sufi saints transcended religious and communal distinctions, and worked for promoting the interest of humanity at large.
4. The Sufis were a class of philosophers remarkable for their religious catholicity and tolarance.
5. Sufis regarded God as the supreme beauty and believed that one must admire it, take delight in His thought and concentrate his attention on Him only.
6. They believed that God is 'Mashuq' (beloved) and Sufis are the' Ashiqs' (lovers). Sufism crystallized into various 'Silsilahs' or orders.
7. The most popular Sufi orders were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.
8 Sufism took root in both rural and urban areas, arid exercised a deep social, political and cultural influence on the masses.
9. It rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy, and endeavored to create a new world order in which spiritual bliss was the ultimate goal.
10. At a time when struggle for political power was the prevailing trend, the Sufi saints reminded people of their moral obligations.
11. In a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony.
12 The most important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim conflicts and prejudices by forging the feelings of solidarity and brotherhood between these two religious communities.

• The origin of the Palayakkarar (poligari) system dates back to the 1530s. It is believed that this system was practiced earlier in Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal.
• The literal meaning of Palayakkarar is the holder of a camp as well as the holder of an estate on military tenure.
• Prior to the enforcement of this system Servaikarars and Talayaris collected fees for police work.
• After the creation of palayams, the Servaikarars turned Palayakkarars and subordinated Talayaris to their authority.
• The Nawab of Arcot, who had borrowed heavily by pledging the villages in several parts of Tamilnadu, entrusted the task of collecting land revenue arrears to the Company administration.
• Yusuf Khan remembered as Khan Sahib, had been employed as commander of the Company's Indian troops. He was entrusted not only with the command of the forces, but also with the collection of revenue.
• At the request of the Nawab, a force of 500 Europeans and 200 sepoys was (1755), ordered to proceed into the countries of Madurai and Tirunelveli to assist him.
• The encroachment of East Indian Company administration into palayakkarar's authority aroused stiff resistance.
• Mafuzkhan (Arcot Nawab's elder brother) was appointed by the Nawab as his representative in those territories. Three Pathan officers, Nawab Chanda Sahib's agents, named Mianah, Mudimiah and Nabikhan Kattak, commanded the Madurai and Tirunelveli regions.
• They supported Tamil palayakkarars against Arcot Nawab Mohamed Ali. Puli Thevar had established close relationships with them.
• The palayakkarars of Uthumalai, Surandai, Thalaivankottai, Naduvakurichi, Singampatti, Urkad, Seithur, Kollamkondan and Wadakarai joined Puli Thevar's confederacy.
• With the promise of restoring Kalakkadu, Puli Thevar had already won over the ruler of Tranvancore to his confederacy.

1. Akbar began his life as an orthodox Muslim but adopted an accommodative approach under the influence of Sufism.
2. Akbar was interested to learn about the doctrines of all religions, and propagated a philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all).
3. Badauni, a contemporary author, who did not like Akbar's inter-religious interests, accused him of forsaking Islam.
4. Akbar had established an Ibadat Khana, a hall of worship in which initially Muslim I clerics gathered to discuss spiritual issues.
5. Later he invited Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains and even atheists to discussions.
6. In 1582, he discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness among different religions.
7. However, he did not give up his attempt to know the Truth. Akbar discussed personally with the leading lights of different religions like Purushotam and Devi (Hinduism), Meherji Rana (Zorastrianism), the Portugese Aquaviva and Monserrate (Christianity) and Hira Vijaya Suri (Jainism) to ascertain the Truth. Because of the discussions he felt that behind the multiplicity of names there was but one God.
8. The exact word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate the philosophy of Akbar is Tauhid-i-Ilahi namely Din Ilahi. Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally meant divine monotheism.
9. It can be considered a sufistic order but not a new religion. He had become a Pir (Sufi Guru) who enrolled Murids (Sufi disciples) who would follow a set pattern of rules ascribed by the Guru.
10. Thousands of disciples enrolled as his disciples. Akbar's intention was to establish a state based on the concept of secular principles, equal toleration, and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs.
11. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc, into Persian.
12. he Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda, the Bible and the Quran were translated into Persian. The Din Ilahi ceased to exist after Akbar.

• For the first time in the political history of India the Europeans conquered and seized territories from the Indian rulers.
• Indian rulers remained divided and Europeans took advantage of it.
• The Europeans adopted new methods in the warfare. Gun powder and superior artillery played a significant role.
• The Portuguese could contain the monopolistic trade of the Arabs. But it did not really help them. Instead, it benefited the British who removed pirates on the sea routes and made the sea voyage safe.
• The marriages between Europeans and Indians, encouraged by the Portuguese in the territories occupied by them, created a new Eurasian racial group. They were the ones who were later taken to other Portuguese colonies in Africa and Asia.
• The presence of Portuguese is very much evident in Chennai's San Thome. Mylapore was the Portuguese 'Black Town'. (Black Town of the British period was George Town)

Analyse:
1.Cholas undertook measures to improve the irrigation system that was in practice.
2. As the state was drawing most of its revenue from agriculture, the Cholas focused their efforts on managing water resources.
3. Vativaykkal, a criss-cross channel, is a traditional way of harnessing rain water in the Kavery delta.
4. Vati runs in the north-south direction while vaykkal runs in the east-west direction. Technically, vati is a drainage channel and a vaykkal is a supply channel.

1. The Delhi Sultanate deserves to be considered an all-India empire.
2. Virtually all of India, exeept Kashmir and Kerala at the far ends of the subcontinent, and a few small tracts in between them had come under the direct rule of Delhi towards the close of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's rule.
3. There were no well-defined and accepted rules of royal succession and therefore contested succession became the norm during the Sultanate.
4. The Sultans required the holders of iqta's (called muqtis or walis) to maintain troops for royal service out of the taxes collected by them.
5. Certain areas were retained by the Sultans under their direct control (khalisa).
6. It was out of the revenue collected from such areas that they paid the officers and soldiers of the sultan's own troops (hashm-i qalb).

1. Guild is a society or other organisation of people with common interests or an association of merchants.
2. There are several references in several sources to artisans, traders and occupational groups in the guilds.
3. Guilds continued as the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise.
4. The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis describe the organisation and activities of guilds.
5. They mention that the guild had a chief and two, three or five executive officers.
6. Guild laws were apparently laid down in written documents. The Brihaspati Srnriti refers to guilds rendering justice to their members and suggests that these decisions should, by and large, be approved by the king.

1. The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known as the age of Kalabhras in the history of Tamizhagam.
2. A group of inscriptions found at Pulangurichi in Sivagangai district datable to about the middle of the fifth century, name two kings. They are Chendan and Kurran. Though there is no mention about their family or dynasty name, some scholars identify them as Kalabhra rulers.
3. The Kalabhra kingdom seems to have been uprooted by Pandyas around the third quarters of sixth century CE.

1. Right Views;
2. Right Resolve;
3. Right Speech;
4. Right Conduct;
5. Right Livelihood;
6. Right Effort;
7. Right Recollection;
8. Right Meditation.