Proinces under the Peshwas were of various sizes. Larger provinces were under the provincial governors called Sar-subahdars.
The divisions in the provinces were termed Subahs arid Pranths.
The Mamlatdar and Kamavistar were Peshwa's representatives in the districts. They were responsible for every branch of district administration.
Deshmukhs and Deshpandes were district officers who were in charge of accounts and were to observe the activities of Mamlatdars and Kamavistars.

1. Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by people of the first,three orders in the social hierarchy became available to everyone.
2. Bhakti movement provided women and members of the lower strata of the society an inclusive path to spiritual salvation.
3. Literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse.
4. The poet-saints of this movement championed a wide range of philosophical positions, ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita.

1. The industrial revolution in textile production that took place in England reversed this relationship for the first time.
2. India was systematically de-industrialized.
3. Rather than being the world's leading exporter of cloth and textiles, India became a market for Lancashire cottons.
4. Cheap machine-made British goods led to the flooding of lndian markets.
5. Indian cotton piece goods began to lose ground gradually given that machine-made goods were more durable and cost less.

• The Ahmadiya movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed (1835-1908) in 1889 established a different trend.
• While emphasizing the return to the original principles enunciated in the Quran, Ghulam Ahmed became controversial when he claimed to be a Messiah, which was considered heretical by mainstream Islam.
• But he won many converts. His primary work was to defend Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries.
• In social morals the Ahmadiya movement was conservative, adhering to polygamy,veiling of women, and the classical rules of divorce.

1. Dara Shukoh, the eldest, was the favourite of his father shah jahan. throne of Delhi to his brother Aurangzeb, was known as the Philosopher Prince.
2. He brought different cultures into dialogue and found a close connection between Hinduism and Islam. He translated the Upanishads from Sanskrit to Persian.

1. The battle was fought at Talikota or Rakshasi- Tangadi in January 1565 in which Ramaraya, in spite of his old age, personally commanded the forces along with his cousins and brothers.
2. In the final stages, the battle was lost. Ramaraya was imprisoned and executed immediately.
3. The victorious Bahmani armies entered the Vijayanagar city for the first time in their history, and ransacked it for several months laying it waste.

Rajendra Chola, conquered ofkadaram. So, he is called as "KadaramKondan".

1. The rockcut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta located in present-day Maharashtra belong to their period.
2. The Ellora cave complex contains the features of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments and art work.
3. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora ascribed to his period.
4. The most striking structure at Ellora is the creation of the Monolithic Kailasanath Temple. .
5. The temple was hewn out of a single rock during the time of Krishna I in the 8th century.

1. Spinning and weaving, especially of cotton fabrics, relying on the universal availability of cotton throughout India.
2. A great variety of cloth was produced in the country, ranging from the coarse fabrics used by the ordinary people for everyday use, to the very fine textures worn by the upper classes and the royalty.
3. The Arthasastra refers to the regions producing specialised textiles - Kasi (Benares), Vanga (Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai and many others.
4. Each region produced many distinctive and specialised varieties of fabrics.
5. Cloth embroidered with gold and silver was worn by the King and members of the royal court.
6. Silk was known and was generally referred to as Chinese silk, which also indicates that extensive trade was carried on in the Mauryan Empire.

Based on research, two independent cultural traditions of hand axe (Acheulian) and pebble-flake (Sohanian) industries were, confirmed in India. Acheulian industry mainly had hand axes and cleavers.
1. The Sohan industry is considered to have used only chopper and chopping tools.
2. The Sohan industry gets its name from the Sohan river valley of Pakistan.
3. These two cultural traditions are not considered distinct any longer.
4. Recent studies argue that there was no independent Sohan tradition as Acheulian tools are found in the Sohan industry as well.

1. The cultural phase that followed the Middle Palaeolithic is called Upper Palaeolithic.
2. This period is marked by innovation in tool technology and increased cognitive capability of humans.
3. Microliths (tiny stone tools) were introduced in the Upper Palaeolithic Period
4. The tools were made using different varieties of silica-rich raw materials.
5. The lithic blade industry advanced in this period.

• The English acquired the islands of Bombay in 1668, and setup their headquarters In Bombay in 1687.
• Their primary objective was to develop Bombay as an alternate base for their operations.

Social reform movements formed an integral part of the religious reforms primarily because all the efforts towards social ills like caste- and gender- based inequality derived legitimacy from religion.

• According to the treaty of Srirangapatnam, the Tipu was to give up half of his dominions, pay three crores of rupees as indemnity, and pledge two of his sons as hostages.
• The allies were given equal shares of the indemnity and of the ceded territories

1.Harihara and Bukka, the eldest sons of one Sangama, earlier serving the Hoysala rulers of Karnataka, asserted their independence and laid foundation for a new kingdom in about 1336
2. Initially their capital was in or near about Anegondi on the north bank of the Tungabhadra river.But soon it was shifted to the Hoysala town Hosapattana (near Hampi) on the south bank.
3. The capital was expanded and renamed Vijayanagara, the city of Victory.

The Ottomans (Turkish people practicing Sunni Islam) forced Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, the ruler of Samarkand, to seek his career prospects elsewhere.

1. Al-Beruni: Tarikh-Al-Hind (Indian Philosophy and Religion written in Arabic )
2. MinhejueSiraj: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (1260) (World Islamic History written in Arabic )

Harsha as King of Kanauj
1. The magnates of Kanauj (the capital of Maukhari kingdom), on the advice of their minister Poni, invited Harsha to ascend the throne.
2. A reluctant Harsha accepted the throne on the advice of Avalokitesvara Bodhisatva with the title of Rajputra and Siladitya.
3. Thus the two kingdoms of Thaneswar and Kanauj became united under Harsha's rule.
4. Consequently, Harsha transferred his capital to Kanauj.

1. Seleucus surrendered the land he had conquered up to the Indus and
2. Received 500 war elephants in return.
3. A marriage agreement between theem.
4. The treaty also led to the establishment of diplomatic relations between the Greeks and the Mauryan emperor.

Bimbisara extended the territory of Magadhan Empire by matrimonial alliances and conquests.

Agni, Surya, Siva, Sinivalli, Ushas.

The provisions of the Subsidiary Treaty are:
1. All Indian ruler entering into Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to dissolve his own armed forces and accept British forces and a British Resident in his territory.
2. He had to pay for the British army's maintenance. If he failed, a portion of his territory would be taken away and ceded to the British.
3. The protected prince was to sever all connections with European powers other than the British, especially the French.
4. No European should be employed without the permission of the British.
5. No negotiation with any Indian power should be held without the Company's permission and
6. No other Indian power to interfere in its internal affairs.
7. Thus the states brought under the system became dependent on the Company in political and military matters, sacrificing their own sovereignty and status.

The overall contribution of Brahmo Samaj can be summed up as follows
• It denounced polytheism, idol worship, and the faith in divine avatars (incarnations)
• It condemned the caste system, dogmas and superstitions .
• It wanted the abolition of child marriage, purdah system and the practice of sati
• It supported widow remarriage

1.The administrative reforms introduced by Gawan improved the efficiency of the government, but curtailed the powers of the provincial chiefs, who were mostly Deccanis.
2. So the already existing rivalry among the two groups of nobles, Deccani Muslims and Pardesi (foreigner) Muslims, further intensified and conflicts broke out.
3 Gawan became a victim of this tussle for power, although he remained fair and neutral in this conflict.
4. Jealous of his success they forged a letter to implicate Gawan in a conspiracy against the Sultan. Sultan, who himself was not happy with Gawan's dominance, ordered his execution.
5. Gawan's execution augured ill for the Sultanate. Several of the foreign nobles who were considered the strongest pillars of the state began to leave for their provlnces,Ieading to the disintegration of the Sultanate.
6. After the Sultan's death five of his descendants succeeded him on the throne but they were kings only in name.
7. During this period the Sultanate gradually broke up into four independent kingdoms: Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar and Golkonda. Bidar where the Bahmani Sultan ruled as a puppet became the fifth one.

Sources of revenue were Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
The Chauth was divided into
25 percent for the ruler
66 percent for Maratha officials and military heads for the maintenance of troops.
6 percent for the Pant Sachiv (Chief, a Brahman by birth)
3 percent for the tax collectors
Customs, excise duties and sale of forest produce also yielded much income. Goldsmiths were allowed to mint coins on payment of royalty to the government and getting license for the purpose.
They had to maintain a certain standard. When it was found that the standard was not being met all private mints were closed in 1760 and a central mint was established.
Miscellaneous taxes were also collected. It included
Tax on land, held by Deshmukhs and Deshpandes.
Tax on land kept for the village Mahars.
Tax on the lands irrigated by wells.
House tax from all except Brahmins and village officials.
Annual fee for the testing of weights and measures.
Tax on the re-marriage of widows.
Tax on sheep and buffaloes.
Pasture fee.
Tax on melon cultivation in river beds.
Succession duty.
Duty on the sale of horses, etc.
When the Maratha government was in financial difficulty, it levied on all landholders, Kurja-Patti or Tasti-Patti, a tax equal to one year's income of the taxpayer.

1. Sufism had become an influential aspect of Islamic social life as it extended over almost the entire Muslim community.
2. Sufism represents the inward or esoteric side and the mystical dimension of Islam.
3. Sufi saints transcended religious and communal distinctions, and worked for promoting the interest of humanity at large.
4. The Sufis were a class of philosophers remarkable for their religious catholicity and tolarance.
5. Sufis regarded God as the supreme beauty and believed that one must admire it, take delight in His thought and concentrate his attention on Him only.
6. They believed that God is 'Mashuq' (beloved) and Sufis are the' Ashiqs' (lovers). Sufism crystallized into various 'Silsilahs' or orders.
7. The most popular Sufi orders were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.
8 Sufism took root in both rural and urban areas, arid exercised a deep social, political and cultural influence on the masses.
9. It rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy, and endeavored to create a new world order in which spiritual bliss was the ultimate goal.
10. At a time when struggle for political power was the prevailing trend, the Sufi saints reminded people of their moral obligations.
11. In a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony.
12 The most important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim conflicts and prejudices by forging the feelings of solidarity and brotherhood between these two religious communities.

Causes:
• The rebellion first began as a mutiny in Barrackpore (near Calcutta). Manga1 Pandey murdered his officer in January 1857 and a mutiny broke out there.
• In the following month, at Meerut, of the 90 sepoys who were to receive their cartridges only five obeyed orders. On 10 May three sepoy regiments revolted, killed their officers, and released those who had been imprisoned.
• The next day they reached Delhi, murdered Europeans, and seized that city. The rebels proclaimed Bahadur Shah II as emperor. Henry Havelock, who was sent to deal with the situation, defeated Nana Sahib the day after the massacre.
• Neill, who was left there, took terrible vengeance and those whom he regarded as guilty were executed. Towards the close of November Tania Topi seized Kanpur but it was soon recovered by Campbell.
Result:
• A Royal Durbar was held at Allahabad on November 1, 1858. The proclamation issued by Queen Victoria was read at the Durbar by Lord Canning, who was the last Governor General and the first Viceroy of India.
• Hereafter India would be governed by and in the name of the British Monarch through a Secretary of State. The Secretary of State was to be assisted by a Council ofIndia consisting of fifteen members. As a result, the Court of Directors and the Board of Control of the East India Company were abolished and the Crown and Parliament became constitutionally responsible for the governance of India. The separate army of the East India Company was abolished and merged with that of Crown.
• Proclamation endorsed the treaties made by the Company with Indian princes, promised to respect their rights, dignity and honour, and disavowed any ambition to extend the existing British possessions in India.
• The new council of 1861 was to have Indian nomination, since the Parliament thought the Legislative Council of 1853 consisted of only Europeans who had never bothered to consult Indian opinion and that led to the crisis.
• The Doctrine of Lapse and the policy of annexation to be given up. A general amnesty (pardon) to be granted to the rebels except those who directly. involved in killing the British subjects.

1. Akbar began his life as an orthodox Muslim but adopted an accommodative approach under the influence of Sufism.
2. Akbar was interested to learn about the doctrines of all religions, and propagated a philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all).
3. Badauni, a contemporary author, who did not like Akbar's inter-religious interests, accused him of forsaking Islam.
4. Akbar had established an Ibadat Khana, a hall of worship in which initially Muslim I clerics gathered to discuss spiritual issues.
5. Later he invited Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains and even atheists to discussions.
6. In 1582, he discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness among different religions.
7. However, he did not give up his attempt to know the Truth. Akbar discussed personally with the leading lights of different religions like Purushotam and Devi (Hinduism), Meherji Rana (Zorastrianism), the Portugese Aquaviva and Monserrate (Christianity) and Hira Vijaya Suri (Jainism) to ascertain the Truth. Because of the discussions he felt that behind the multiplicity of names there was but one God.
8. The exact word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate the philosophy of Akbar is Tauhid-i-Ilahi namely Din Ilahi. Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally meant divine monotheism.
9. It can be considered a sufistic order but not a new religion. He had become a Pir (Sufi Guru) who enrolled Murids (Sufi disciples) who would follow a set pattern of rules ascribed by the Guru.
10. Thousands of disciples enrolled as his disciples. Akbar's intention was to establish a state based on the concept of secular principles, equal toleration, and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs.
11. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc, into Persian.
12. he Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda, the Bible and the Quran were translated into Persian. The Din Ilahi ceased to exist after Akbar.

• For the first time in the political history of India the Europeans conquered and seized territories from the Indian rulers.
• Indian rulers remained divided and Europeans took advantage of it.
• The Europeans adopted new methods in the warfare. Gun powder and superior artillery played a significant role.
• The Portuguese could contain the monopolistic trade of the Arabs. But it did not really help them. Instead, it benefited the British who removed pirates on the sea routes and made the sea voyage safe.
• The marriages between Europeans and Indians, encouraged by the Portuguese in the territories occupied by them, created a new Eurasian racial group. They were the ones who were later taken to other Portuguese colonies in Africa and Asia.
• The presence of Portuguese is very much evident in Chennai's San Thome. Mylapore was the Portuguese 'Black Town'. (Black Town of the British period was George Town)

1. Chola temples became the arena of social celebrations and functioned as social institutions. They became the hub of societal space in organising social, political, economic and cultural activities.
2. The prime temple officials were koyirramar, koyilkanakku (temple accountant), deva- kanmi (agent of god), srivaisnavar, cantesar (temple manager) and others.
3. They promoted the development of learning, dance, music, painting and drama. A play called Rajarajanatakam, based on the life of Rajaraja I, was performed in the Thanjavur temple.
4. The festivals of ChithiraiTiruvizha, Kartigai and Aippasivizha were celebrated. It is said that singing hymns in temple premises promoted oral literacy.
5. Traditional dance items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu were portrayed in the form of sculptures and paintings in the temples in Kilapalivur, Tiruvorriyur.
6. Nirutya and kama poses are shown in sculptural forms in the Thanjavur big temple. Traditional Tamil musical instruments also were portrayed in this way.
7. Temples functioned as banks by advancing loans and by purchasing and receiving endowments and donations.
8. They also became educational centres as training was imparted in Vedas, music and the arts. Sculpture and metal work too were promoted. Temple accounts were audited and the auditor was called koyilkanakku.

1. Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly from the cultivators. The village headman who traditionally enjoyed the right to collect them was now deprived of it.
2. The tax pressure of Ala-ud-din was on the rich and not on the poor.
3. Ala-ud-din set up the postal system to keep in touch with all parts of his sprawling empire.

1. Guild is a society or other organisation of people with common interests or an association of merchants.
2. There are several references in several sources to artisans, traders and occupational groups in the guilds.
3. Guilds continued as the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise.
4. The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis describe the organisation and activities of guilds.
5. They mention that the guild had a chief and two, three or five executive officers.
6. Guild laws were apparently laid down in written documents. The Brihaspati Srnriti refers to guilds rendering justice to their members and suggests that these decisions should, by and large, be approved by the king.

Foreign Notices
The following Greek and Latin sources inform us about the long distance cultural and commercial connections.
1. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient Greek text of the first century CE.
2. Pliny the Elder's Natural History, first century CE
3. Ptolemy's Geography, second century CE
4. Vienna Papyrus G 40822, aGreek document datable to the second century CE.
5. A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table

About 500 years after Mahavira's death, in about 79 or 82 CE, a schism occurred in Jainism. Magadha was affected by severe famine and some of the Jaina monks under Bhadrabahu went south to maintain their strict discipline. They remained without garments and were known as Digambaras (space-clad or naked). Others stayed back under the leadership of Sthulabhadra and adopted a white garment and were known as Svetambaras (white-clad). The schism weakened Jainism in Magadha, but it foundardent followers in Gujarat, Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka.